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    Extended-protected article Lebanon From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search This article is about the country. For other uses of "Lebanon", see Lebanon (disambiguation) and Liban (disambiguation). Coordinates: 33°50′N 35°50′E Lebanese Republic الجمهورية اللبنانية (Arabic) al-Jumhūrīyah al-Lubnānīyah République libanaise (French) Flag of Lebanon Flag {{{coat_alt}}} Coat of arms Anthem: كلّنا للوطن Kulluna lil-watan All Of Us, For the Country! Menu 0:00 Location of Lebanon Location of Lebanon Capital and largest city Beirut 33°54′N 35°32′E Official languages Arabic[nb 1] Recognised languages French Demonym Lebanese Government Unitary parliamentary multi-confessionalist republic[1] • President Michel Aoun[2] • Prime Minister Saad Hariri • Speaker of the Parliament Nabih Berri Legislature Parliament Establishment • Mount Lebanon Emirate 1516 • Greater Lebanon 1 September 1920 • Constitution 23 May 1926 • Independence declared 22 November 1943 • Independence (Joined UN / French Mandate ended) 24 October 1945 • Withdrawal of French forces 31 December 1946 Area • Total 10,452 km2 (4,036 sq mi) (162nd) • Water (%) 1.8 Population • 2016 estimate 6,006,668[3] (112th) • Density 560/km2 (1,450.4/sq mi) (21st) GDP (PPP) 2018 estimate • Total $91 billion[4] (88th) • Per capita $20,028[4] (66th) GDP (nominal) 2018 estimate • Total $57 billion[4] (86th) • Per capita $12,454[4] (71st) HDI (2017) Decrease 0.757[5] high · 80th Currency Lebanese pound (LBP) Time zone UTC+2 (EET) • Summer (DST) UTC+3 (EEST) Driving side right[6] Calling code +961[7] ISO 3166 code LB Internet TLD .lb This article contains Arabic text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols. Lebanon (/ˈlɛbənɒn/ (About this soundlisten); Arabic: لبنان‎ Lubnān; Lebanese pronunciation: [lɪbˈnɛːn]; French: Liban), officially known as the Lebanese Republic[nb 2] (Arabic: الجمهورية اللبنانية‎ al-Jumhūrīyah al-Lubnānīyah; Lebanese pronunciation: [elˈʒʊmhuːɾɪjje lˈlɪbnɛːnɪjje]; French: République libanaise), is a country in Western Asia. It is bordered by Syria to the north and east and Israel to the south, while Cyprus is west across the Mediterranean Sea. Lebanon's location at the crossroads of the Mediterranean Basin and the Arabian hinterland facilitated its rich history and shaped a cultural identity of religious and ethnic diversity.[8] At just 10,452 km2 (4,036 sq. mi.), it is the smallest recognized sovereign state on the mainland Asian continent.[nb 3][9][10] The earliest evidence of civilization in Lebanon dates back more than seven thousand years, predating recorded history.[11] Lebanon was the home of the Canaanites/Phoenicians and their kingdoms, a maritime culture that flourished for over a thousand years (c. 1550–539 BC). In 64 BC, the region came under the rule of the Roman Empire, and eventually became one of the Empire's leading centers of Christianity. In the Mount Lebanon range a monastic tradition known as the Maronite Church was established. As the Arab Muslims conquered the region, the Maronites held onto their religion and identity. However, a new religious group, the Druze, established themselves in Mount Lebanon as well, generating a religious divide that has lasted for centuries. During the Crusades, the Maronites re-established contact with the Roman Catholic Church and asserted their communion with Rome. The ties they established with the Latins have influenced the region into the modern era. The region eventually was ruled by the Ottoman Empire from 1516 to 1918. Following the collapse of the empire after World War I, the five provinces that constitute modern Lebanon came under the French Mandate of Lebanon. The French expanded the borders of the Mount Lebanon Governorate, which was mostly populated by Maronites and Druze, to include more Muslims. Lebanon gained independence in 1943, establishing confessionalism, a unique, Consociationalism-type of political system with a power-sharing mechanism based on religious communities. Bechara El Khoury, President of Lebanon during the independence, Riad El-Solh, first Lebanese prime minister and Emir Majid Arslan II, first Lebanese minister of defence, are considered the founders of the modern Republic of Lebanon and are national heroes for having led the country's independence. Foreign troops withdrew completely from Lebanon on 31 December 1946.[12] Lebanon has been a member of the United Nations since its founding in 1945 as well as of the Arab League (1945), the Non-Aligned Movement (1961), Organisation of the Islamic Cooperation (1969) and the Organisation internationale de la francophonie (1973). Despite its small size,[13] the country has developed a well-known culture and has been highly influential in the Arab world, powered by its large diaspora. Before the Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990), the country experienced a period of relative calm and renowned prosperity, driven by tourism, agriculture, commerce, and banking.[14] Because of its financial power and diversity in its heyday, Lebanon was referred to as the "Switzerland of the East" during the 1960s,[15] and its capital, Beirut, attracted so many tourists that it was known as "the Paris of the Middle East".[16] At the end of the war, there were extensive efforts to revive the economy and rebuild national infrastructure.[17] In spite of these troubles, Lebanon has the 7th highest Human Development Index and GDP per capita in the Arab world after the the oil-rich economies of the Persian Gulf. Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Ancient Lebanon 2.2 Maronites, Druze, and the Crusades 2.3 Ottoman Lebanon and French Mandate 2.4 Independence from France 2.5 Civil war and Syrian occupation 2.6 Syrian withdrawal and aftermath 3 Geography 3.1 Climate 3.2 Environment 4 Environmental issues 5 Government and politics 5.1 Law 5.2 Foreign relations 5.3 Military 5.4 Governorates and districts 6 Economy 6.1 History 6.1.1 Tourism 7 Demographics 7.1 Religion 7.2 Language 8 Culture 8.1 Arts 8.2 Literature 8.3 Music 8.4 Media and cinema 8.5 Holidays and festivals 8.6 Sports 9 Education 10 Health 11 See also 12 Notes 13 References 14 Bibliography 15 Further reading 16 External links Etymology The name of Mount Lebanon originates from the Phoenician root lbn (𐤋𐤁𐤍) meaning "white", apparently from its snow-capped peaks.[18] Occurrences of the name have been found in different Middle Bronze Age texts from the library of Ebla,[19] and three of the twelve tablets of the Epic of Gilgamesh. The name is recorded in Ancient Egyptian as Rmnn, where R stood for Canaanite L.[20] The name occurs nearly 70 times in the Hebrew Bible, as לְבָנוֹן.[21] Lebanon as the name of an administrative unit (as opposed to the mountain range) was introduced with the Ottoman reforms of 1861, as the Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate (Arabic: متصرفية جبل لبنان‎; Turkish: Cebel-i Lübnan Mutasarrıflığı), continued in the name of the State of Greater Lebanon (Arabic: دولة لبنان الكبير‎ Dawlat Lubnān al-Kabīr; French: État du Grand Liban) in 1920, and eventually in the name of the sovereign Republic of Lebanon (Arabic: الجمهورية اللبنانية‎ al-Jumhūrīyah al-Lubnānīyah) upon its independence in 1943. History This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Main article: History of Lebanon The borders of contemporary Lebanon are a product of the Treaty of Sèvres of 1920. Its territory was the core of the Bronze Age Phoenician (Canaanite) city-states. As part of the Levant, it was part of numerous succeeding empires throughout ancient history, including the Egyptian, Assyrian, Babylonian, Achaemenid Persian, Hellenistic, Roman and Sasanid Persian empires. After the 7th-century Muslim conquest of the Levant, it was part of the Rashidun, Umyayad, Abbasid Seljuk and Fatimid empires. The crusader state of the County of Tripoli, founded by Raymond IV of Toulouse in 1102, encompassed most of present-day Lebanon, falling to the Mamluk Sultanate in 1289 and finally to the Ottoman Empire in 1517. With the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, Greater Lebanon fell under French mandate in 1920, and gained independence under president Bechara El Khoury in 1943. Lebanon's history since independence has been marked by alternating periods of political stability and prosperity based on Beirut's position as a regional center for finance and trade, interspersed with political turmoil and armed conflict (1948 Arab–Israeli War, Lebanese Civil War 1975–1990, 2005 Cedar Revolution, 2006 Lebanon War, 2007 Lebanon conflict, 2006–08 Lebanese protests, 2008 conflict in Lebanon, and since 2011 Syrian Civil War spillover). Ancient Lebanon Main article: History of ancient Lebanon Map of Phoenicia and trade routes Evidence dating back to an early settlement in Lebanon was found in Byblos, considered one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world.[11] The evidence dates back to earlier than 5000 BC. Archaeologists discovered remnants of prehistoric huts with crushed limestone floors, primitive weapons, and burial jars left by the Neolithic and Chalcolithic fishing communities who lived on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea over 7,000 years ago.[22] Lebanon was a part of northern Canaan, and consequently became the homeland of Canaanite descendants – the Phoenicians, a seafaring people who spread across the Mediterranean before the rise of Cyrus the Great.[23] Their most famous colonies were Carthage in what is present-day Tunisia and Cádiz in present-day Spain. The Canaanite-Phoenicians are also known as the inventors of the alphabet, among many other things. The area of present-day Lebanon and the wider Eastern Mediterranean were subjugated by Cyrus in 539 BCE.[24] The Persians forced some of its population to migrate to Carthage, which remained a powerful nation until the Second Punic War. After two centuries of Persian rule, Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great attacked and burned Tyre, the most prominent Phoenician city. He conquered what is now Lebanon and other nearby regions of the Eastern Mediterranean in 332 BCE.[24] Maronites, Druze, and the Crusades The Fall of Tripoli to the Egyptian Mamluks and destruction of the Crusader state, the County of Tripoli, 1289 The region that is now Lebanon, as with the rest of Syria and much of Anatolia, became a major center of Christianity in the Roman Empire during the early spread of the religion. During the late 4th and early 5th century, a hermit named Maron established a monastic tradition focused on the importance of monotheism and asceticism, near the Mediterranean mountain range known as Mount Lebanon. The monks who followed Maron spread his teachings among Lebanese in the region. These Christians came to be known as Maronites and moved into the mountains to avoid religious persecution by Roman authorities.[25] During the frequent Roman-Persian Wars that lasted for many centuries, the Sassanid Persians occupied what is now Lebanon from 619 till 629.[26] During the 7th century the Muslim Arabs conquered Syria establishing a new regime to replace the Byzantines. Though Islam and the Arabic language were officially dominant under this new regime, the general populace nonetheless only gradually converted from Christianity and the Syriac language. The Maronite community in particular managed to maintain a large degree of autonomy despite the succession of rulers over Lebanon and Syria. During the 11th century the Druze faith emerged from a branch of Shia Islam. The new faith gained followers in the southern portion of Mount Lebanon. The northern portion of Mount Lebanon was ruled by Druze feudal families to the early 14th century which was then brought to an end by the Mamluk invasion. The Maronite population increased gradually in Northern Mount Lebanon and the Druze have remained in Southern Mount Lebanon until the modern era. In the south of Lebanon, (Jabal Amel), Baalbek and the Beqaa Valley was ruled by Shia feudal families under the Mamluks and the Ottoman Empire. Major cities on the coast, Acre, Beirut, and others, were directly administered by the Muslim Caliphs and the people became more fully absorbed by the Arab culture. Following the fall of Roman Anatolia to the Muslim Turks, the Byzantines put out a call to the Pope in Rome for assistance in the 11th century. The result was a series of wars known as the Crusades launched by the Franks in Western Europe to reclaim the former Byzantine Christian territories in the Eastern Mediterranean, especially Syria and Palestine (the Levant). The First Crusade succeeded in temporarily establishing the Kingdom of Jerusalem and the County of Tripoli as Roman Catholic Christian states along the coast.[27] These crusader states made a lasting impact on the region, though their control was limited, and the region returned to full Muslim control after two centuries following the conquest by the Mamluks. One of the most lasting effects of the Crusades in this region was the contact between the Franks (i.e. the French) and the Maronites. Unlike most other Christian communities in the Eastern Mediterranean, who swore allegiance to Constantinople or other local patriarchs, the Maronites proclaimed allegiance to the Pope in Rome. As such the Franks saw them as Roman Catholic brethren. These initial contacts led to centuries of support for the Maronites from France and Italy, even after the fall of the Crusader states in the region. Ottoman Lebanon and French Mandate See also: Emirate of Mount Lebanon, Sidon Eyalet, and Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate Fakhreddine II Palace, 17th century 1862 map drawn by the French expedition of Beaufort d'Hautpoul,[28] later used as a template for the 1920 borders of Greater Lebanon.[29][30] During this period Lebanon was divided into several provinces: Northern and Southern Mount Lebanon, Tripoli, Baalbek and Beqaa Valley and Jabal Amel. In southern Mount Lebanon in 1590, Fakhr-al-Din II became the successor to Korkmaz. He soon established his authority as paramount prince of the Druze in the Shouf area of Mount Lebanon. Eventually, Fakhr-al-Din II was appointed Sanjakbey (Governor) of several Ottoman sub-provinces, with responsibility for tax-gathering. He extended his control over a substantial part of Mount Lebanon and its coastal area, even building a fort as far inland as Palmyra.[31] This over-reaching eventually became too much for Ottoman Sultan Murad IV, who sent a punitive expedition to capture him in 1633. He was taken to Istanbul, kept in prison for two years and then executed along with one of his sons in April 1635.[32] Surviving members of Fakhr al-Din's family ruled a reduced area under closer Ottoman control until the end of the 17th century. On the death of the last Maan emir, various members of the Shihab clan ruled Mount Lebanon until 1830. Approximately 10,000 Christians were killed by the Druzes during inter-communal violence in 1860.[33] Shortly afterwards, the Emirate of Mount Lebanon, which lasted about 400 years, was replaced by the Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate, as a result of a European-Ottoman treaty called the Règlement Organique. The Baalbek and Beqaa Valley and Jabal Amel was ruled intermittently by various Shia feudal families, especially the Al Ali Alsagheer in Jabal Amel that remained in power until 1865 when Ottomans took direct ruling of the region. Youssef Bey Karam, a Lebanese nationalist played an influential role in Lebanon's independence during this era. In 1920, following WWI, the area of the Mutasarrifate, plus some surrounding areas which were predominantly Shia and Sunni, became a part of the state of Greater Lebanon under the French Mandate of Syria and Lebanon. Around 100,000 people in Beirut and Mount Lebanon died of starvation during World War I.[34] In the first half of 1920, Lebanese territory was claimed as part of the Arab Kingdom of Syria, but shortly the Franco-Syrian War resulted in Arab defeat and capitulation of the Hashemites. Roman baths park on the Serail hill, Beirut. On 1 September 1920, France reestablished Greater Lebanon after the Moutasarrifiya rule removed several regions belonging to the Principality of Lebanon and gave them to Syria.[35] Lebanon was a largely Christian country (mainly Maronite territory with some Greek Orthodox enclaves) but it also included areas containing many Muslims and Druze.[citation needed] On 1 September 1926, France formed the Lebanese Republic. A constitution was adopted on 25 May 1926 establishing a democratic republic with a parliamentary system of government. Independence from France Martyrs' Square in Beirut during celebrations marking the release by the French of Lebanon's government from Rashayya prison on 22 November 1943 Lebanon gained a measure of independence while France was occupied by Germany.[36] General Henri Dentz, the Vichy High Commissioner for Syria and Lebanon, played a major role in the independence of the nation. The Vichy authorities in 1941 allowed Germany to move aircraft and supplies through Syria to Iraq where they were used against British forces. The United Kingdom, fearing that Nazi Germany would gain full control of Lebanon and Syria by pressure on the weak Vichy government, sent its army into Syria and Lebanon.[citation needed] After the fighting ended in Lebanon, General Charles de Gaulle visited the area. Under political pressure from both inside and outside Lebanon, de Gaulle recognized the independence of Lebanon. On 26 November 1941 General Georges Catroux announced that Lebanon would become independent under the authority of the Free French government. Elections were held in 1943 and on 8 November 1943 the new Lebanese government unilaterally abolished the mandate. The French reacted by imprisoning the new government. In the face of international pressure, the French released the government officials on 22 November 1943. The allies occupied the region until the end of World War II. Following the end of World War II in Europe the French mandate may be said to have been terminated without any formal action on the part of the League of Nations or its successor the United Nations. The mandate was ended by the declaration of the mandatory power, and of the new states themselves, of their independence, followed by a process of piecemeal unconditional recognition by other powers, culminating in formal admission to the United Nations. Article 78 of the UN Charter ended the status of tutelage for any member state: "The trusteeship system shall not apply to territories which have become Members of the United Nations, relationship among which shall be based on respect for the principle of sovereign equality."[37] So when the UN officially came into existence on 24 October 1945, after ratification of the United Nations Charter by the five permanent members, as both Syria and Lebanon were founding member states, the French mandate for both was legally terminated on that date and full independence attained.[38] The last French troops withdrew in December 1946. Lebanon's unwritten National Pact of 1943 required that its president be Maronite Christian, its speaker of the parliament to be a Shiite Muslim, its prime minister be Sunni Muslim, and the Deputy Speaker of Parliament and the Deputy Prime Minister be Greek Orthodox.[39] Lebanon's history since independence has been marked by alternating periods of political stability and turmoil interspersed with prosperity built on Beirut's position as a regional center for finance and trade.[40] In May 1948, Lebanon supported neighbouring Arab countries in a war against Israel. While some irregular forces crossed the border and carried out minor skirmishes against Israel, it was without the support of the Lebanese government, and Lebanese troops did not officially invade.[41] Lebanon agreed to support the forces with covering artillery fire, armored cars, volunteers and logistical support.[42] On 5–6 June 1948, the Lebanese army – led by the then Minister of National Defence, Emir Majid Arslan – captured Al-Malkiyya. This was Lebanon's only success in the war.[43] 100,000 Palestinians fled to Lebanon because of the war. Israel did not permit their return after the cease-fire.[44] As of 2017 between 174,000 and 450,000 Palestinian refugees live in Lebanon with about half in refugee camps (although these are often decades old and resemble neighborhoods).[45] Palestinians often cannot obtain Lebanese citizenship or even Lebanese identity cards so many are legally barred from owning property or performing certain occupations (including law, medicine, and engineering).[46] According to Human Rights Watch, Palestinian refugees in Lebanon live in "appalling social and economic conditions." In 1958, during the last months of President Camille Chamoun's term, an insurrection broke out, instigated by Lebanese Muslims who wanted to make Lebanon a member of the United Arab Republic. Chamoun requested assistance, and 5,000 United States Marines were briefly dispatched to Beirut on 15 July. After the crisis, a new government was formed, led by the popular former general Fuad Chehab. With the defeat of the PLO in Jordan, many Palestinian militants relocated to Lebanon, increasing their armed campaign against Israel. The relocation of Palestinian bases also led to increasing sectarian tensions between Palestinians versus the Maronites and other Lebanese factions. Civil war and Syrian occupation Main article: Lebanese Civil War The Green Line that separated west and east Beirut, 1982 In 1975, following increasing sectarian tensions, a full-scale civil war broke out in Lebanon. The Lebanese Civil War pitted a coalition of Christian groups against the joint forces of the PLO, left-wing Druze and Muslim militias. In June 1976 Lebanese President Elias Sarkis asked for the Syrian Army to intervene on the side of the Christians and help restore peace.[47] In October 1976 the Arab League agreed to establish a predominantly Syrian Arab Deterrent Force, which was charged with restoring calm.[48] In 1982, the PLO attacks from Lebanon on Israel led to an Israeli invasion. A multinational force of American, French and Italian contingents (joined in 1983 by a British contingent) were deployed in Beirut after the Israeli siege of the city, to supervise the evacuation of the PLO. It returned in September 1982 after the assassination of Bashir Gemayel and subsequent fighting. During this time a number of massacres occurred, such as in Sabra and Shatila,[49] and in several refugee camps.[50] The multinational force was withdrawn in the spring of 1984, following a devastating bombing attack during the previous year. In September 1988, the Parliament failed to elect a successor to President Gemayel as a result of differences between the Christians, Muslims, and Syrians. The Arab League Summit of May 1989 led to the formation of a Saudi–Moroccan–Algerian committee to solve the crisis. On 16 September 1989 the committee issued a peace plan which was accepted by all. A ceasefire was established, the ports and airports were re-opened and refugees began to return.[48] In the same month, the Lebanese Parliament agreed to the Taif Agreement, which included an outline timetable for Syrian withdrawal from Lebanon and a formula for the de-confessionalisation of the Lebanese political system.[48] The war ended at the end of 1990 after sixteen years; it had caused massive loss of human life and property, and devastated the country's economy. It is estimated that 150,000 people were killed and another 200,000 wounded.[51] Nearly a million civilians were displaced by the war, and some never returned.[52] Parts of Lebanon were left in ruins.[53] The Taif Agreement has still not been implemented in full and Lebanon's political system continues to be divided along sectarian lines. Syrian withdrawal and aftermath Main article: Syrian occupation of Lebanon Demonstrators calling for the withdrawal of Syrian forces. The internal political situation in Lebanon significantly changed in the early 2000s. After the Israeli withdrawal from southern Lebanon and the death of Hafez Al-Assad in 2000, the Syrian military presence faced criticism and resistance from the Lebanese population.[54] On 14 February 2005, former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri was assassinated in a car bomb explosion.[55] Leaders of the March 14 Alliance accused Syria of the attack,[56] while Syrian officials and the March 8 Alliance claimed that the Mossad was behind the assassination.[57] The Hariri assassination marked the beginning of a series of assassinations that resulted in the death of many prominent Lebanese figures.[nb 4] The assassination triggered the Cedar Revolution, a series of demonstrations which demanded the withdrawal of Syrian troops from Lebanon and the establishment of an international commission to investigate the assassination. Under pressure from the West, Syria began withdrawing,[58] and by 26 April 2005 all Syrian soldiers had returned to Syria.[59] UNSC Resolution 1595 called for an investigation into the assassination.[60] The UN International Independent Investigation Commission published preliminary findings on 20 October 2005 in the Mehlis report, which cited indications that the assassination was organized by Syrian and Lebanese intelligence services.[61][62][63][64] On 12 July 2006, Hezbollah launched a series of rocket attacks and raids into Israeli territory, where they killed three Israeli soldiers and captured two others.[65] Israel responded with airstrikes and artillery fire on targets in Lebanon, and a ground invasion of southern Lebanon, resulting in the 2006 Lebanon War. The conflict was officially ended by the UNSC Resolution 1701 on 14 August 2006, which ordered a ceasefire.[66] Some 1,191 Lebanese[67] and 160 Israelis[68] were killed in the conflict. Beirut's southern suburb was heavily damaged by Israeli airstrikes.[69] In 2007, the Nahr al-Bared refugee camp became the center of the 2007 Lebanon conflict between the Lebanese Army and Fatah al-Islam. At least 169 soldiers, 287 insurgents and 47 civilians were killed in the battle. Funds for the reconstruction of the area have been slow to materialize.[70] Between 2006 and 2008, a series of protests led by groups opposed to the pro-Western Prime Minister Fouad Siniora demanded the creation of a national unity government, over which the mostly Shia opposition groups would have veto power. When Émile Lahoud's presidential term ended in October 2007, the opposition refused to vote for a successor unless a power-sharing deal was reached, leaving Lebanon without a president. On 9 May 2008, Hezbollah and Amal forces, sparked by a government declaration that Hezbollah's communications network was illegal, seized western Beirut,[71] leading to the 2008 conflict in Lebanon.[72] The Lebanese government denounced the violence as a coup attempt.[73] At least 62 people died in the resulting clashes between pro-government and opposition militias.[74] On 21 May 2008, the signing of the Doha Agreement ended the fighting.[71][74] As part of the accord, which ended 18 months of political paralysis,[75] Michel Suleiman became president and a national unity government was established, granting a veto to the opposition.[71] The agreement was a victory for opposition forces, as the government caved in to all their main demands.[74] In early January 2011, the national unity government collapsed due to growing tensions stemming from the Special Tribunal for Lebanon, which was expected to indict Hezbollah members for the Hariri assassination.[76] The parliament elected Najib Mikati, the candidate for the Hezbollah-led March 8 Alliance, Prime Minister of Lebanon, making him responsible for forming a new government.[77] Hezbollah leader Hassan Nasrallah insists that Israel was responsible for the assassination of Hariri.[78] A report leaked by the Al-Akhbar newspaper in November 2010 stated that Hezbollah has drafted plans for a takeover of the country in the event that the Special Tribunal for Lebanon issues an indictment against its members.[79][80] In 2012, the Syrian civil war threatened to spill over in Lebanon, causing more incidents of sectarian violence and armed clashes between Sunnis and Alawites in Tripoli.[81] As of 6 August 2013, more than 677,702 Syrian refugees are in Lebanon.[82] As the number of Syrian refugees increases, the Lebanese Forces Party, the Kataeb Party, and the Free Patriotic Movement fear the country’s sectarian based political system is being undermined.[83] Geography Main article: Geography of Lebanon Kadisha Valley, a gorge in northern Lebanon Lebanon from space. Snow cover can be seen on the western Mount Lebanon and eastern Anti-Lebanon mountain ranges Lebanon is located in Western Asia between latitudes 33° and 35° N and longitudes 35° and 37° E. Its land straddles the "northwest of the Arabian plate".[84] The country's surface area is 10,452 square kilometres (4,036 sq mi) of which 10,230 square kilometres (3,950 sq mi) is land. Lebanon has a coastline and border of 225 kilometres (140 mi) on the Mediterranean sea to the west, a 375 kilometres (233 mi) border shared with Syria to the north and east and a 79 kilometres (49 mi) long border with Israel to the south.[85] The border with the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights is disputed by Lebanon in a small area called Shebaa Farms.[86] Lebanon is divided into four distinct physiographic regions: the coastal plain, the Lebanon mountain range, the Beqaa valley and the Anti-Lebanon mountains. The narrow and discontinuous coastal plain stretches from the Syrian border in the north where it widens to form the Akkar plain to Ras al-Naqoura at the border with Israel in the south. The fertile coastal plain is formed of marine sediments and river deposited alluvium alternating with sandy bays and rocky beaches. The Lebanon mountains rise steeply parallel to the Mediterranean coast and form a ridge of limestone and sandstone that runs for most of the country's length. The mountain range varies in width between 10 km (6 mi) and 56 km (35 mi); it is carved by narrow and deep gorges. The Lebanon mountains peak at 3,088 metres (10,131 ft) above sea level in Qurnat as Sawda' in North Lebanon and gradually slope to the south before rising again to a height of 2,695 metres (8,842 ft) in Mount Sannine. The Beqaa valley sits between the Lebanon mountains in the west and the Anti-Lebanon range in the east; it's a part of the Great Rift Valley system. The valley is 180 km (112 mi) long and 10 to 26 km (6 to 16 mi) wide, its fertile soil is formed by alluvial deposits. The Anti-Lebanon range runs parallel to the Lebanon mountains, its highest peak is in Mount Hermon at 2,814 metres (9,232 ft).[85] The mountains of Lebanon are drained by seasonal torrents and rivers foremost of which is the 145 kilometres (90 mi) long Leontes that rises in the Beqaa Valley to the west of Baalbek and empties into the Mediterranean Sea north of Tyre.[85] Lebanon has 16 rivers all of which are non navigable; 13 rivers originate from Mount Lebanon and run through the steep gorges and into the Mediterranean Sea, the other three arise in the Beqaa Valley.[87] Climate Main article: Climate of Lebanon Lebanon has a moderate Mediterranean climate. In coastal areas, winters are generally cool and rainy whilst summers are hot and humid. In more elevated areas, temperatures usually drop below freezing during the winter with heavy snow cover that remains until early summer on the higher mountaintops.[85][88] Although most of Lebanon receives a relatively large amount of rainfall, when measured annually in comparison to its arid surroundings, certain areas in north-eastern Lebanon receive little because of rain shadow created by the high peaks of the western mountain range.[89] Environment Main article: Wildlife of Lebanon The Lebanon cedar is the national emblem of Lebanon. In ancient times, Lebanon was covered by large forests of cedar trees, the national emblem of the country.[90] Millenia of deforestation has altered the hydrology in Mount Lebanon and changed the regional climate adversely.[91] Today, forests cover 13.4% of the Lebanese land area;[92] they are under constant threat from wildfires caused by the long dry summer season.[93] As a result of longstanding exploitation, few old cedar trees remain in pockets of forests in Lebanon, but there is an active program to conserve and regenerate the forests. The Lebanese approach has emphasized natural regeneration over planting by creating the right conditions for germination and growth. The Lebanese state has created several nature reserves that contain cedars, including the Shouf Biosphere Reserve, the Jaj Cedar Reserve, the Tannourine Reserve, the Ammouaa and Karm Shbat Reserves in the Akkar district, and the Forest of the Cedars of God near Bsharri.[94][95][96] In 2010, the Environment Ministry set a 10-year plan to increase the national forest coverage by 20%, which is equivalent to the planting of two million new trees each year.[97] The plan, which was funded by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID), and implemented by the U.S. Forest Service (USFS), through the Lebanon Reforestation Initiative (LRI), was inaugurated in 2011 by planting cedar, pine, wild almond, juniper, fir, oak and other seedlings, in ten regions around Lebanon.[97] Today, forests cover 13.6% of Lebanon, and other wooded lands represent a further 11%.[98] Since 2011, more than 600,000 trees, including cedars and other native species, have been planted throughout Lebanon as part of the Lebanon Reforestation Initiative (LRI).[99] Environmental issues Main article: Marine environmental issues in Lebanon Beirut and Mount Lebanon have been facing a severe garbage crisis. After the closure of the Bourj Hammoud dump in 1997, the al-Naameh dumpsite was opened by the government in 1998. The al-Naameh dumpsite was planned to contain 2 million tons of waste for a limited period of six years at the most. It was designed to be a temporary solution, while the government would have devised a long-term plan. Sixteen years later al-Naameh was still open and exceeded its capacity by 13 million tons. In July 2015 the residents of the area, already protesting in the recent years, forced the closure of the dumpsite.The inefficiency of the government, as well as the corruption inside of the waste management company Sukleen in charge of managing the garbage in Lebanon, have resulted in piles of garbage blocking streets in Mount Lebanon and Beirut.[100] In December 2015 the Lebanese government signed an agreement with Chinook Industrial Mining, part owned by Chinook Sciences, to export over 100,000 tons of untreated waste from Beirut and the surrounding area. The waste had accumulated in temporary locations following the government closure of the county's largest land fill site five months earlier. The contract was jointly signed with Howa International which has offices in Holland and Germany. The contract is reported to cost $212 per ton. The waste, which is compacted and infectious, would have to be sorted and was estimated to be enough to fill 2,000 containers.[101][102][103][104] Initial reports that the waste was to be exported to Sierra Leone have been denied by diplomats.[105] In February 2016 the government withdrew from negotiations after it was revealed that documents relating to the export of the trash to Russia were forgeries.[106] On 19 March 2016, the Cabinet reopened the Naameh landfill for 60 days in line with a plan it passed few days earlier to end the trash crisis. The plan also stipulates the establishment of landfills in Bourj Hammoud and Costa Brava, east and south of Beirut respectively. Sukleen trucks began removing piled garbage from Karantina and heading to Naameh. Environment Minister Mohammad Machnouk announced during a chat with activists that more than 8,000 tons of garbage had been collected so far as part of the government’s trash plan in only 24 hours. The plan's execution is still ongoing.[7] [8] Government and politics Main articles: Politics of Lebanon and Human rights in Lebanon The Lebanese parliament building at the Place de l'Étoile One of many protests in Beirut Lebanon is a parliamentary democracy that includes confessionalism,[107] in which high-ranking offices are reserved for members of specific religious groups. The President, for example, has to be a Maronite Christian, the Prime Minister a Sunni Muslim, the Speaker of the Parliament a Shi’a Muslim, the Deputy Prime Minister and the Deputy Speaker of Parliament Eastern Orthodox.[108][109] This system is intended to deter sectarian conflict and attempts to represent fairly the demographic distribution of the 18 recognized religious groups in government.[110][111] Until 1975, Freedom House considered Lebanon to be one of only two (together with Israel) politically free countries in the Middle East and North Africa region.[112] The country lost this status with the outbreak of the civil War, and has not regained it since. Lebanon was rated "Partly Free" in 2013. Even so, the United States still considers Lebanon to be one of the most democratic nations in the Arab world.[112] Until 2005, Palestinians were forbidden to work in over 70 jobs because they did not have Lebanese citizenship. After liberalization laws were passed in 2007, the number of banned jobs dropped to around 20.[44] In 2010, Palestinians were granted the same rights to work as other foreigners in the country.[113] Lebanon's national legislature is the unicameral Parliament of Lebanon. Its 128 seats are divided equally between Christians and Muslims, proportionately between the 18 different denominations and proportionately between its 26 regions.[114] Prior to 1990, the ratio stood at 6:5 in favor of Christians; however, the Taif Agreement, which put an end to the 1975–1990 civil war, adjusted the ratio to grant equal representation to followers of the two religions.[108] The Parliament is elected for a four-year term by popular vote on the basis of sectarian proportional representation.[7] The executive branch consists of the President, the head of state, and the Prime Minister, the head of government. The parliament elects the president for a non-renewable six-year term by a two-third majority. The president appoints the Prime Minister,[115] following consultations with the parliament. The president and the prime minister form a cabinet, which must also adhere to the sectarian distribution set out by confessionalism. In an unprecedented move, the Lebanese parliament has extended its own term twice amid protests, the last being on 5 November 2014,[116] an act which comes in direct contradiction with democracy and article #42 of the Lebanese constitution as no elections have taken place.[117] Lebanon was without a President between May 2014 and October 2016.[2][118] Nationwide elections were finally scheduled for May 2018.[119] Law There are 18 officially recognized religious groups in Lebanon, each with its own family law legislation and set of religious courts.[120] The Lebanese legal system is based on the French system, and is a civil law country, with the exception for matters related to personal status (succession, marriage, divorce, adoption, etc.), which are governed by a separate set of laws designed for each sectarian community. For instance, the Islamic personal status laws are inspired by the Sharia law.[121] For Muslims, these tribunals deal with questions of marriage, divorce, custody, and inheritance and wills. For non-Muslims, personal status jurisdiction is split: the law of inheritance and wills falls under national civil jurisdiction, while Christian and Jewish religious courts are competent for marriage, divorce, and custody. Catholics can additionally appeal before the Vatican Rota court.[122] The most notable set of codified laws is the Code des Obligations et des Contrats promulgated in 1932 and equivalent to the French Civil Code.[121] Capital punishment is still de facto used to sanction certain crimes, but no longer enforced.[121] The Lebanese court system consists of three levels: courts of first instance, courts of appeal, and the court of cassation. The Constitutional Council rules on constitutionality of laws and electoral frauds. There also is a system of religious courts having jurisdiction over personal status matters within their own communities, with rules on matters such as marriage and inheritance.[123] Foreign relations Main article: Foreign relations of Lebanon Lebanon concluded negotiations on an association agreement with the European Union in late 2001, and both sides initialed the accord in January 2002. It is included in the European Union's European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP), which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer. Lebanon also has bilateral trade agreements with several Arab states and is working toward accession to the World Trade Organization. Lebanon enjoys good relations with virtually all of the other Arab countries (despite historic tensions with Libya, the Palestinians, Syria and Iraq), and hosted an Arab League Summit in March 2002 for the first time in more than 35 years. Lebanon is a member of the Francophone countries and hosted the Francophone Summit in October 2002 as well as the Jeux de la Francophonie in 2009. Military Main article: Lebanese Armed Forces Soldiers of the Lebanese army, 2009 The Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF) has 72,000 active personnel,[124] including 1,100 in the air force, and 1,000 in the navy.[125] The Lebanese Armed Forces' primary missions include defending Lebanon and its citizens against external aggression, maintaining internal stability and security, confronting threats against the country's vital interests, engaging in social development activities, and undertaking relief operations in coordination with public and humanitarian institutions.[126] Lebanon is a major recipient of foreign military aid.[127] With more than $400 million since 2005, it is the second largest per capita recipient of American military aid behind Israel.[128] Governorates and districts Main articles: Governorates of Lebanon, Districts of Lebanon, and Municipalities of Lebanon Lebanon is divided into eight governorates (mohaafazaat, Arabic: محافظات‎; singular mohafazah, Arabic: محافظة‎) which are further subdivided into twenty-six districts (aqdya—singular: qadaa).[129] The districts themselves are also divided into several municipalities, each enclosing a group of cities or villages. The governorates and their respective districts are listed below: Akkar North Akkar Miniyeh- Danniyeh Zgharta Koura Tripoli Bsharri Batroun Mount Lebanon Jbeil Kesrwan Matn Beirut ♦ Baabda Aley Chouf South Jezzine Sidon Tyre Baalbek-Hermel Hermel Baalbek Beqaa Zahle Western Beqaa Rashaya Nabatieh Hasbaya Nabatieh Marjeyoun Bint Jbeil Beirut Governorate The Beirut Governorate is not divided into districts and is limited to the city of Beirut Akkar Governorate Akkar Baalbek-Hermel Governorate Baalbek Hermel Beqaa Governorate Rashaya Western Beqaa (al-Beqaa al-Gharbi) Zahle Mount Lebanon Governorate (Jabal Lubnan/Jabal Lebnen) Aley Baabda Jbeil Chouf Keserwan (Keserwen) Matn Nabatieh Governorate (Jabal Amel) Bint Jbeil Hasbaya Marjeyoun Nabatieh North Governorate (ash-Shamal/shmel) Batroun Bsharri Koura Miniyeh-Danniyeh Tripoli Zgharta South Governorate (al-Janoub/Jnub) Jezzine Sidon (Saida) Tyre (Sur) Corinthian capitals in Baalbek Economy Main article: Economy of Lebanon Graphical depiction of Lebanon 's product exports in 28 color-coded categories. Lebanon’s economy follows a laissez-faire model.[130] Most of the economy is dollarized, and the country has no restrictions on the movement of capital across its borders.[130] The Lebanese government’s intervention in foreign trade is minimal.[130] The Lebanese economy grew 8.5% in 2008 and a revised 9% in 2009[131] despite a global recession.[132] Real GDP growth is estimated to have slowed from 7.5% in 2010 to 1.5% in 2011, according to IMF preliminary estimates, with nominal GDP estimated at $41.5 billion in 2011.[130] The Banque du Liban projects real GDP growth could reach 4% in 2012, with 6% inflation (versus 4% in 2011).[130] The political and security instability in the Arab world, especially in Syria, is expected to have a negative impact on the domestic business and economic environment.[130] Lebanon has a very high level of public debt and large external financing needs.[130] The 2010 public debt exceeded 150.7% of GDP, ranking fourth highest in the world as a percentage of GDP, though down from 154.8% in 2009.[7] At the end 2008, finance minister Mohamad Chatah stated that the debt was going to reach $47 billion in that year and would increase to $49 billion if privatization of two telecoms companies did not occur.[133] The Daily Star wrote that exorbitant debt levels have "slowed down the economy and reduced the government's spending on essential development projects".[134] The urban population in Lebanon is noted for its commercial enterprise.[135] Emigration has yielded Lebanese "commercial networks" throughout the world.[136] Remittances from Lebanese abroad total $8.2 billion[137] and account for one fifth of the country's economy.[138] Lebanon has the largest proportion of skilled labor among Arab States.[139] The Investment Development Authority of Lebanon was established with the aim of promoting investment in Lebanon. In 2001, Investment Law No.360[140] was enacted to reinforce the organisation's mission. The agricultural sector employs 12% of the total workforce.[141] Agriculture contributed to 5.9% of the country's GDP in 2011.[142] Lebanon's proportion of cultivable land is the highest in the Arab world,[143] Major produce includes apples, peaches, oranges, and lemons.[14] The commodities market in Lebanon includes substantial gold coin production, however according to International Air Transport Association (IATA) standards, they must be declared upon exportation to any foreign country.[144] Oil has recently been discovered inland and in the seabed between Lebanon, Cyprus, Israel and Egypt and talks are underway between Cyprus and Egypt to reach an agreement regarding the exploration of these resources. The seabed separating Lebanon and Cyprus is believed to hold significant quantities of crude oil and natural gas.[145] Industry in Lebanon is mainly limited to small businesses that reassemble and package imported parts. In 2004, industry ranked second in workforce, with 26% of the Lebanese working population,[141] and second in GDP contribution, with 21% of Lebanon's GDP.[14] Nearly 65% of the Lebanese workforce attain employment in the services sector.[141] The GDP contribution, accordingly, amounts to roughly 67.3% of the annual Lebanese GDP.[14] However, dependence on the tourism and banking sectors leaves the economy vulnerable to political instability.[17] Lebanese banks are high on liquidity and reputed for their security.[146] Lebanon was one of the only seven countries in the world in which the value of the stock markets increased in 2008.[147] On 10 May 2013 the Lebanese minister of energy and water clarified that seismic images of the Lebanese's sea bed are undergoing detailed explanation of their contents and that up till now, approximately 10% have been covered. Preliminary inspection of the results showed, with more than 50% probability, that 10% of Lebanon's exclusive economic zone contained up to 660 million barrels of oil and up to 30×1012 cu ft of gas.[148] The Syrian crisis has significantly affected Lebanese economic and financial situation. The demographic pressure imposed by the Syrian refugees now living in Lebanon has led to competition in the labour market. As a direct consequence unemployment has doubled in three years, reaching 20% in 2014. A loss of 14% of wages regarding the salary of less-skilled workers has also been registered. The financial constraints were also felt: the poverty rate increased with 170.000 Lebanese falling under the poverty threshold. In the period between 2012 and 2014, the public spending increased by $1 billion and losses amounted to $7.5 billion. Expenditures related only to the Syrian refugees were estimated by the Central Bank of Lebanon as $4.5 billion every year.[149] History Lebanese real GDP growth In the 1950s, the second highest level of GDP was initially reached by Lebanon. Despite not having oil reserves, Lebanon, as the banking center of the Middle East and one of the trading centers, had a high national income.[150] The 1975–1990 civil war heavily damaged Lebanon's economic infrastructure,[125] cut national output by half, and all but ended Lebanon's position as a West Asian entrepôt and banking hub.[7] The subsequent period of relative peace enabled the central government to restore control in Beirut, begin collecting taxes, and regain access to key port and government facilities. Economic recovery has been helped by a financially sound banking system and resilient small- and medium-scale manufacturers, with family remittances, banking services, manufactured and farm exports, and international aid as the main sources of foreign exchange.[151] Until July 2006, Lebanon enjoyed considerable stability, Beirut's reconstruction was almost complete,[152] and increasing numbers of tourists poured into the nation's resorts.[16] The economy witnessed growth, with bank assets reaching over 75 billion US dollars,[153] Market capitalization was also at an all-time high, estimated at $10.9 billion at the end of the second quarter of 2006.[153] The month-long 2006 war severely damaged Lebanon's fragile economy, especially the tourism sector. According to a preliminary report published by the Lebanese Ministry of Finance on 30 August 2006, a major economic decline was expected as a result of the fighting.[154] Over the course of 2008 Lebanon rebuilt its infrastructure mainly in the real estate and tourism sectors, resulting in a comparatively robust post war economy. Major contributors to the reconstruction of Lebanon include Saudi Arabia (with US$1.5 billion pledged),[155] the European Union (with about $1 billion)[156] and a few other Persian Gulf countries with contributions of up to $800 million.[157] Tourism Main article: Tourism in Lebanon Baalbek, temple of Jupiter The tourism industry accounts for about 10% of GDP.[158] Lebanon managed to attract around 1,333,000 tourists in 2008, thus placing it as rank 79 out of 191 countries.[159] In 2009, The New York Times ranked Beirut the No. 1 travel destination worldwide due to its nightlife and hospitality.[160] In January 2010, the Ministry of Tourism announced that 1,851,081 tourists had visited Lebanon in 2009, a 39% increase from 2008.[161] In 2009, Lebanon hosted the largest number of tourists to date, eclipsing the previous record set before the Lebanese Civil War.[162] Tourist arrivals reached two million in 2010, but fell by 37% for the first 10 months of 2012, a decline caused by the war in neighbouring Syria.[158] aches at the ruins of Anjar Saudi Arabia, Jordan, and Japan are the three most popular origin countries of foreign tourists to Lebanon.[163] The recent influx of Japanese tourists has caused the recent rise in popularity of Japanese Cuisine in Lebanon.[164] Demographics Main articles: Demographics of Lebanon and Lebanese people Artisan in Tripoli The population of Lebanon was estimated to be 6,006,668 in 2016,[3] however no official census has been conducted since 1932 due to the sensitive confessional political balance between Lebanon's various religious groups.[165] Identifying all Lebanese as ethnically Arab is a widely employed example of panethnicity since in reality, the Lebanese "are descended from many different peoples who are either indigenous, or have occupied, invaded, or settled this corner of the world", making Lebanon, "a mosaic of closely interrelated cultures".[166] While at first glance, this ethnic, linguistic, religious and denominational diversity might seem to cause civil and political unrest, "for much of Lebanon’s history this multitudinous diversity of religious communities has coexisted with little conflict".[166] The fertility rate fell from 5.00 in 1971 to 1.75 in 2004. Fertility rates vary considerably among the different religious groups: in 2004 it was 2.10 for Shiites, 1.76 Sunnis and 1.61 for Maronites.[167] Lebanon has witnessed a series of migration waves: over 1,800,000 people emigrated from the country in the 1975–2011 period.[167] Millions of people of Lebanese descent are spread throughout the world, mostly Christians,[168] especially in Latin America.[169] Brazil has the largest expatriate population.[170] (See Lebanese Brazilians). Large numbers of Lebanese migrated to West Africa,[171] particularly to the Ivory Coast (home to over 100,000 Lebanese)[172] and Senegal (roughly 30,000 Lebanese).[173] Australia is home to over 270,000 Lebanese (1999 est.).[174] In Canada, there is also a large Lebanese diaspora of approximately 250,000–700,000 people having Lebanese descent. (see Lebanese Canadians). Another region with a significant diaspora is the Persian Gulf, where the countries of Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar (around 25,000 people),[175] Saudi Arabia and UAE act as host countries to many Lebanese. As of 2012, Lebanon was host to over 1,600,000 refugees and asylum seekers: 449,957 from Palestine,[7] 5,986[citation needed] from Iraq, over 1,100,000 from Syria,[7][176] and 4,000 from Sudan. According to the Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia of the United Nations, among the Syrian refugees, 71% live in poverty.[149] The latest estimates by the United Nations put the number of Syrian refugees at more than 1,250,000.[82] In the last three decades, lengthy and destructive armed conflicts have ravaged the country. The majority of Lebanese have been affected by armed conflict; those with direct personal experience include 75% of the population, and most others report suffering a range of hardships. In total, almost the entire population (96%) has been affected in some way – either personally or because of the wider consequences of armed conflict.[177] vte Largest cities or towns in Lebanon Source? Rank Name Governorate Pop. Beirut Beirut Tripoli Tripoli 1 Beirut Beirut 1,916,100 Zahlé Zahlé Sidon Sidon 2 Tripoli North 730,000 3 Zahlé Beqaa 85,000 4 Sidon South 75,000 5 Aley Mount Lebanon 65,000 6 Tyre South 60,204 7 Nabatieh Nabatieh 50,000 8 Jounieh Mount Lebanon 35,500 9 Batroun North 35,312 10 Baalbek Bekaa 10,392 Religion Main articles: Religion in Lebanon, Islam in Lebanon, Christianity in Lebanon, Secularism in Lebanon, and Irreligion in Lebanon Religion in Lebanon (est. 2014) Islam (54%) Christianity (40.4%) Druze (5.6%) Distribution of main religious groups of Lebanon according to last municipal election data.[178] Lebanon is the most religiously diverse country in the Middle East.[179] As of 2014 the CIA World Factbook estimates the following: Muslim 54% (27% Sunni Islam, 27% Shia Islam), Christian 40.5% (includes 21% Maronite Catholic, 8% Greek Orthodox, 5% Melkite Catholic, 1% Protestant, 5.5% other Christian), Druze 5.6%, very small numbers of Jews, Baha'is, Buddhists, Hindus and Mormons.[180] A study conducted by the Lebanese Information Center and based on voter registration numbers shows that by 2011 the Christian population was stable compared to that of previous years, making up 34.35% of the population; Muslims, the Druze included, were 65.47% of the population.[181] The World Values Survey of 2014 put the percentage of atheists in Lebanon at 3.3%.[182] It is believed that there has been a decline in the ratio of Christians to Muslims over the past 60 years, due to higher emigration rates of Christians, and a higher birth rate in the Muslim population.[183] When the last census was held in 1932, Christians made up 53% of Lebanon's population.[167] In 1956, it was estimated that the population was 54% Christian and 44% Muslim.[167] A demographic study conducted by the research firm Statistics Lebanon found that approximately 27% of the population was Sunni, 27% Shia, 21% Maronite, 8% Greek Orthodox, 5% Druze, 5% Melkite, and 1% Protestant, with the remaining 6% mostly belonging to smaller non-native to Lebanon Christian denominations.[183] Other sources like Euronews[184] or the Madrid-based diary La Razón[185] estimate the percentage of Christians to be around 53%. Because the relative size of confessional groups remains a sensitive issue, a national census has not been conducted since 1932.[183] There are 18 state-recognized religious sects – four Muslim, 12 Christian, one Druze, and one Jewish.[183] The Sunni residents primarily live in Tripoli, Western Beirut, the Southern coast of Lebanon, and Northern Lebanon.[186] The Shi'a residents primarily live in Southern Beirut, the Beqaa Valley, and Southern Lebanon.[186] The Maronite residents primarily live in Eastern Beirut and the mountains of Lebanon.[186] They are the largest Christian community in Lebanon.[186] The Greek Orthodox, the second largest Christian community in Lebanon, primarily live in Koura, Beirut, Rachaya, Matn, Aley, Akkar, in the countryside around Tripoli, Hasbaya and Marjeyoun. They are a minority of 10% in Zahle.[citation needed] The Greek Catholics live mainly in Beirut, on the eastern slopes of the Lebanon mountains and in Zahle which is predominantly Greek Catholic.[citation needed] Language See also: Lebanese Arabic, Modern Standard Arabic, and French language in Lebanon Article 11 of Lebanon's Constitution states that "Arabic is the official national language. A law determines the cases in which the French language is to be used".[187] The majority of Lebanese people speak Lebanese Arabic, which is grouped in a larger category called Levantine Arabic, while Modern Standard Arabic is mostly used in magazines, newspapers, and formal broadcast media. Lebanese Sign Language is the language of the deaf community. Almost 40% of Lebanese are considered francophone, and another 15% "partial francophone", and 70% of Lebanon's secondary schools use French as a second language of instruction.[188] By comparison, English is used as a secondary language in 30% of Lebanon's secondary schools.[188] The use of French is a legacy of France's historic ties to the region, including its League of Nations mandate over Lebanon following World War I; as of 2005, some 20% of the population used French on a daily basis.[189] The use of Arabic by Lebanon's educated youth is declining, as they usually prefer to speak in French and, to a lesser extent, English, which are seen as more fashionable.[190][191] English is increasingly used in science and business interactions.[192][193] Lebanese citizens of Armenian, Greek, or Kurdish descent often speak their ancestral languages with varying degrees of fluency. As of 2009, there were around 150,000 Armenians in Lebanon, or around 5% of the population.[194] Culture Main article: Culture of Lebanon Temple of Bacchus is considered one of the best preserved Roman temples in the world, c. 150 AD Ruins at port of Byblos. The culture of Lebanon reflects the legacy of various civilizations spanning thousands of years. Originally home to the Canaanite- Phoenicians, and then subsequently conquered and occupied by the Assyrians, the Persians, the Greeks, the Romans, the Arabs, the Fatimids, the Crusaders, the Ottoman Turks and most recently the French, Lebanese culture has over the millennia evolved by borrowing from all of these groups. Lebanon's diverse population, composed of different ethnic and religious groups, has further contributed to the country's festivals, musical styles and literature as well as cuisine. Despite the ethnic, linguistic, religious and denominational diversity of the Lebanese, they "share an almost common culture".[195] Lebanese Arabic is universally spoken while food, music, and literature are deep-rooted "in wider Mediterranean and Arab Levantine norms".[195] Arts Beige marble statue of a stout young child aged about two years old lying on his left side. The child's head is shaved, his eyes gaze over the viewer's shoulder and his lower body is covered in a draping cloth that hangs limply between his flexed feet. The child supports his torso with his left hand in which he holds an unidentifiable object, he also holds a small bird in his right hand. The sculpture rests on a heavy socle inscribed with barely visible letters spanning the upper part of the socle vertically. Votive marble statue of a royal child, inscribed in Phoenician from the Eshmun sanctuary, c. 400s BC In visual arts, Moustafa Farroukh was one of Lebanon's most prominent painters of the 20th century. Formally trained in Rome and Paris, he exhibited in venues from Paris to New York to Beirut over his career.[196] Many more contemporary artists are currently active, such as Walid Raad, a contemporary media artist currently residing in New York.[197] In the field of photography, the Arab Image Foundation has a collection of over 400,000 photographs from Lebanon and the Middle East. The photographs can be viewed in a research center and various events and publications have been produced in Lebanon and worldwide to promote the collection. Fairuz Literature In literature, Khalil Gibran is the third best-selling poet of all time, behind Shakespeare and Laozi.[198] He is particularly known for his book The Prophet (1923), which has been translated into more than twenty different languages and is the second best selling book in the 20th century behind the Bible.[199] Ameen Rihani was a major figure in the mahjar literary movement developed by Arab emigrants in North America, and an early theorist of Arab nationalism. Mikha'il Na'ima is widely recognized as one of the most important figures in modern Arabic letters and one of the most important spiritual writers of the 20th century. Several contemporary Lebanese writers have also achieved international success; including Elias Khoury, Amin Maalouf, Hanan al-Shaykh, and Georges Schehadé. Music Lydia Canaan, first rock star in the Middle East The music of Lebanon is pervasive in Lebanese society.[200] While traditional folk music remains popular in Lebanon, modern music reconciling Western and traditional Arabic styles, pop, and fusion are rapidly advancing in popularity.[201] Lebanese artists like Fairuz, Wadih El Safi or Sabah are widely known and appreciated in Lebanon and in the Arab world. Lebanese singer Lydia Canaan is listed in the catalog of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame and Museum's Library and Archives in Cleveland, Ohio, USA[202][203] as the first rock star of the Middle East.[203][204][205][206][207] Radio stations feature a variety of music, including traditional Lebanese, classical Arabic, Armenian[208] and modern French, English, American, and Latin tunes.[209] Media and cinema The cinema of Lebanon, according to film critic and historian, Roy Armes, was the only cinema in the Arabic-speaking region, other than Egypt's, that could amount to a national cinema.[210] Cinema in Lebanon has been in existence since the 1920s, and the country has produced over 500 films.[211] The media of Lebanon is not only a regional center of production but also the most liberal and free in the Arab world.[212] According to Press freedom's Reporters Without Borders, "the media have more freedom in Lebanon than in any other Arab country".[213] Despite its small population and geographic size, Lebanon plays an influential role in the production of information in the Arab world and is "at the core of a regional media network with global implications".[214] Holidays and festivals Main article: Public holidays in Lebanon Beiteddine Palace, venue of the Beiteddine Festival Lebanon celebrates national and both Christian and Muslim holidays. Christian holidays are celebrated following both the Gregorian Calendar and Julian Calendar. Greek Orthodox (with the exception of Easter), Catholics, Protestants, and Melkite Christians follow the Gregorian Calendar and thus celebrate Christmas on 25 December. Armenian Apostolic Christians celebrate Christmas on 6 January, as they follow the Julian Calendar. Muslim holidays are followed based on the Islamic lunar calendar. Muslim holidays that are celebrated include Eid al-Fitr (the three-day feast at the end of the Ramadan month), Eid al-Adha (The Feast of the Sacrifice) which is celebrated during the annual pilgrimage to Mecca and also celebrates Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son to God, the Birth of the Prophet Muhammad, and Ashura (the Shiite Day of Mourning). Lebanon's National Holidays include Workers Day, Independence day, and Martyrs Day. Music festivals, often hosted at historical sites, are a customary element of Lebanese culture.[215] Among the most famous are Baalbeck International Festival, Byblos International Festival, Beiteddine International Festival, Jounieh International Festival, Broumana Festival, Batroun International Festival, Ehmej Festival, Dhour Chwer Festival and Tyr Festival.[215][216] These festivals are promoted by Lebanon's Ministry of Tourism. Lebanon hosts about 15 concerts from international performers each year, ranking 1st for nightlife in the Middle East, and 6th worldwide.[217] Sports Main article: Sport in Lebanon Lebanon has six ski resorts. Because of Lebanon's unique geography, it is possible to go skiing in the morning and swimming in the Mediterranean Sea in the afternoon.[218] At the competitive level, basketball and football are among Lebanon’s most popular sports. Canoeing, cycling, rafting, climbing, swimming, sailing and caving are among the other common leisure sports in Lebanon. The Beirut Marathon is held every fall, drawing top runners from Lebanon and abroad.[219] Rugby league is a relatively new but growing sport in Lebanon. The Lebanon national rugby league team participated in the 2000 Rugby League World Cup,[220] and narrowly missed qualification for the 2008[221] and 2013 tournaments.[222] Lebanon also took part in the 2009 European Cup where, after narrowly failing to qualify for the final, the team defeated Ireland to finish 3rd in the tournament.[223] Hazem El Masri, who was born in Tripoli, will always be considered to be the greatest Lebanese to ever play the game. He immigrated to Sydney, Australia from Lebanon in 1988. He became the greatest point-scorer in National Rugby League history in 2009 by scoring himself 2418 points while playing for Australian club, Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs where he also holds the record for most first grade appearances for the club with 317 games and most tries for the club with 159 tries. At international level, He also hold the records as top-try scorer with 12 tries and top-point scorer with 136 points for the Lebanese national team.[224] Lebanon participates in Basketball. The Lebanese National Team qualified for the FIBA World Championship 3 times in a row.[225][226] Dominant Basketball teams in Lebanon are Sporting Al Riyadi Beirut,[227] who are the current Arab and Asian champions, Club Sagesse who were able to earn the Asian and Arab championships before. Fadi El Khatib is the most decorated player in the Lebanese National Basketball League. Football is also one of the more popular sports in the country with the Lebanese Football League, whose most successful clubs are the Al-Ansar Club and the Nejmeh SC, with notable players being Roda Antar and Youssef Mohamad, the first Arab to captain a European premier league team. In recent years, Lebanon has hosted the AFC Asian Cup[228] and the Pan Arab Games.[229][230] Lebanon hosted the 2009 Jeux de la Francophonie[231] from 27 September to 6 October, and have participated in every Olympic Games since its independence, winning a total of four medals.[232] Prominent Lebanese bodybuilders include Samir Bannout, Mohammad Bannout and Ahmad Haidar. Water sports have also shown to be very active in the past years, in Lebanon. Since 2012 and with the emergence of the Lebanon Water Festival NGO, more emphasis has been placed on those sports, and Lebanon has been pushed forward as a water sport destination internationally.[233] They host different contests and water show sports that encourage their fans to participate and win big.[234] Education Main article: Education in Lebanon Haigazian University in Beirut. AUB College Hall in Beirut. Listed by the World Economic Forum’s 2013 Global Information Technology Report, Lebanon has been ranked globally as the fourth best country for math and science education, and as the tenth best overall for quality of education. In quality of management schools, the country was ranked 13th worldwide.[235] The United Nations assigned Lebanon an education index of 0.871 in 2008. The index, which is determined by the adult literacy rate and the combined primary, secondary, and tertiary gross enrollment ratio, ranked the country 88th out of the 177 countries participating.[236] All Lebanese schools are required to follow a prescribed curriculum designed by the Ministry of Education. Some of the 1400 private schools offer IB programs,[237] and may also add more courses to their curriculum with approval from the Ministry of Education. The first eight years of education are, by law, compulsory.[14] Lebanon has forty-one nationally accredited universities, several of which are internationally recognized.[238][239] The American University of Beirut (AUB) and the Université Saint-Joseph (USJ) were the first Anglophone and the first Francophone universities to open in Lebanon, respectively.[240][241] Universities in Lebanon, both public and private, largely operate in French or English.[242] According to the Webometrics Ranking of World Universities's, the top-ranking universities in the country are the American University of Beirut (#989 worldwide), Lebanese American University (#2,178 worldwide), Université Saint Joseph de Beyrouth (#2,603 worldwide), Université Libanaise (#3,826 worldwide) and Holy Spirit University of Kaslik (#5,525 worldwide).[243] Health In 2010, spending on healthcare accounted for 7.03% of the country's GDP. In 2009, there were 31.29 physicians and 19.71 nurses per 10,000 inhabitants.[244] The life expectancy at birth was 72.59 years in 2011, or 70.48 years for males and 74.80 years for females.[245] By the end of the civil war, only one third of the country’s public hospitals were operational, each with an average of only 20 beds. By 2009 the country had 28 public hospitals, with a total of 2,550 beds.[246] At public hospitals, hospitalized uninsured patients pay 5% of the bill, in comparison with 15% in private hospitals, with the Ministry of Public Health reimbursing the remainder.[246] The Ministry of Public Health contracts with 138 private hospitals and 25 public hospitals.[247] In 2011, there were 236,643 subsidized admissions to hospitals; 164,244 in private hospitals, and 72,399 in public hospitals. More patients visit private hospitals than public hospitals, because the private beds supply is higher.[247] Recently, there has been an increase in foodborne illnesses which has put an emphasis on the importance of the safety of the food chain in Lebanon. This raised the illues public awareness. More restaurants are seeking information and compliance with International Organization for Standardization.[248] See also flagLebanon portal iconAsia portal Book: Lebanon Index of Lebanon-related articles Outline of Lebanon Notes Article 11 of the Constitution of Lebanon states: "Arabic is the official national language. A law shall determine the cases in which the French language can be used." See: French language in Lebanon Republic of Lebanon is the most common phrase used by Lebanese government agencies. The phrase Lebanese Republic is a literal translation of the official Arabic and French names, no longer in use. Lebanese Arabic is the most common language spoken by the citizens of Lebanon. Excluding the partially-recognized State of Palestine. Cyprus, Brunei, Bahrain, Singapore, and the Maldives, whilst all smaller than Lebanon and considered parts of Asia, are entirely on islands, and therefore off the Asian continental mass. 2005: Bassel Fleihan, Lebanese legislator and Minister of Economy and Commerce; Samir Kassir, Columnist and Democratic Left Movement leader; George Hawi, former head of Lebanese Communist Party; Gibran Tueni, Editor in Chief of "An Nahar" newspaper. 2006: Pierre Gemayel, Minister of Industry. 2007: Walid Eido, MP; Antoine Ghanim, MP. References "The Lebanese Constitution" (PDF). Presidency of Lebanon. Archived from the original (PDF) on 19 January 2012. Retrieved 20 August 2011. "Results of 2nd round of Lebanon presidential election: Michel Aoun – 83 (winner); blank votes – 36; others/cancelled – 8". The Daily Star. Retrieved October 31, 2016. 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Comparing Media from Around the World, Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, 2006, p. 372 ISBN 0-205-40242-9 Kamalipour, Yahya; Rampal Kuldip (15 November 2001). "Between Globalization and Localization". Media, sex, violence, and drugs in the global village. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. p. 265. ISBN 978-0-7425-0061-7. Retrieved 19 September 2009. Roy Armes (23 August 2010). Arab filmmakers of the Middle East: a dictionary. Indiana University Press. pp. 26–. ISBN 978-0-253-35518-8. Retrieved 11 December 2011. "Knowledge Intensive Industries: Four Case Studies of Creative Industries in Arab Countries" (PDF). World Bank. p. 16. Retrieved 17 January 2013. Migliorino, Nicola (2008). (Re)constructing Armenia in Lebanon and Syria: ethno-cultural diversity and the state in the aftermath of a refugee crisis. Berghahn Books. p. 122. ISBN 978-1-84545-352-7. Retrieved 11 December 2011. "Lebanon profile – Overview". BBC News. 24 August 2011. Retrieved 4 November 2011. Dale F. Eickelman; Jon W. 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"From kebabs to fattoush – keeping Lebanon's food safe". WHO. WHO. Retrieved 19 March 2015. Bibliography Morris, Benny (April 2008). 1948: A History of the First Arab-Israeli War. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-12696-9. Further reading Arkadiusz, Plonka. L’idée de langue libanaise d’après Sa‘īd ‘Aql, Paris, Geuthner, 2004 (French) ISBN 2-7053-3739-3 Firzli, Nicola Y. Al-Baath wa-Lubnân [Arabic only] ("The Baath and Lebanon"). Beirut: Dar-al-Tali'a Books, 1973 Fisk, Robert. Pity the Nation: The Abduction of Lebanon. New York: Nation Books, 2002. Glass, Charles, "Tribes with Flags: A Dangerous Passage Through the Chaos of the Middle East", Atlantic Monthly Press (New York) and Picador (London), 1990 ISBN 0-436-18130-4 Gorton, TJ and Feghali Gorton, AG. Lebanon: through Writers' Eyes. London: Eland Books, 2009. Hitti Philip K. History of Syria Including Lebanon and Palestine, Vol. 2 (2002) (ISBN 1-931956-61-8) Norton, Augustus R. Amal and the Shi'a: Struggle for the Soul of Lebanon. Austin and London: University of Texas Press, 1987. Sobelman, Daniel. New Rules of the Game: Israel and Hizbollah After the Withdrawal From Lebanon, Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies, Tel-Aviv University, 2004. Riley-Smith, Jonathan. The Oxford Illustrated History of the Crusades. New York: Oxford University Press, 2001. Salibi, Kamal. A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990. Schlicht, Alfred. The role of Foreign Powers in the History of Syria and Lebanon 1799–1861 in: Journal of Asian History 14 (1982) Georges Corm, Le Liban contemporain. Histoire et société (La découverte, 2003 et 2005) External links Lebanon at Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from Wiktionary Media from Wikimedia Commons News from Wikinews Quotations from Wikiquote Texts from Wikisource Textbooks from Wikibooks Travel guide from Wikivoyage Resources from Wikiversity Lebanon الجمهورية اللبنانية Lebanon Lebanon – Country Profile "Lebanon". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Lebanon web resources provided by GovPubs at the University of Colorado Boulder Libraries Lebanon profiles of people and institutions provided by the Arab Decision project Lebanon at Curlie Wikimedia Atlas of Lebanon vte Lebanon articles Related articles Authority control Edit this at Wikidata WorldCat Identities GND: 4035567-6 HDS: 3419 ISNI: 0000 0001 2342 0559 LCCN: n79090014 MusicBrainz: 8138206e-5786-3f86-a53b-19a7303e7419 NARA: 10035724 NDL: 00569338 NKC: ge129798 VIAF: 127773968 Categories: LebanonEastern MediterraneanNear Eastern countriesWestern Asian countriesArabic-speaking countries and territoriesFrench-speaking countries and territoriesLevantMember states of the Arab LeagueMember states of the Organisation internationale de la FrancophonieMember states of the Organisation of Islamic CooperationMember states of the Union for the MediterraneanMember states of the United NationsMiddle Eastern countriesRepublicsStates and territories established in 19431943 establishments in Lebanon1943 establishments in AsiaCountries in Asia Navigation menu Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Article Talk Read View source View history Search Main page Contents Featured content Current events Random article Donate to Wikipedia Wikipedia store Interaction Help About Wikipedia Community portal Recent changes Contact page Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Wikidata item Cite this page Print/export Create a book Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikivoyage Languages العربية Azərbaycanca ދިވެހިބަސް Français עברית Suomi Татарча/tatarça Türkçe اردو Edit links This page was last edited on 25 November 2018, at 07:40 (UTC). 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    details about America business and America travel areas. so many people going Australia for studying. Japanese children want more children their young age. Lebanon young people want done huge business. Canada old women look their children with caring way. Mexico is a very religious country this type of information knows many people. Qatar people like their business delightful organized standard phone to confirm. Russia is world biggest country compare world other countries. Thailand most people like their home decorate their next day. Hungary people use their so many rubbish things to make useful things. Lichestetaine people like their married life to keep calm way. Oman people like their dresses to keep clean every day. The world most population has in china. India has 2nd world most population. Australia has so many trees compare world other countries. French people are very friendly people compares world other countries. America is world most powerful country. England people want to eat fresh standard goo quality food to eat. England old name is engalaland. Denmark people want their roads increased in their lovely country. so many people to thank their friends if they do right things for them world has so many zoos and world has so many types of animals so many people worry about if they did not understand their future life do not disturb to old people because they are our role model do not worry about financial situation if you do hard work that situation will be solved England football always in a good situation, they fulfill their time in playing football A lot of money will get if the start wright business and you must plane your business most for women and men care about their children and they teach them every people find good home for to build their children future life youth people become old and old people thought about their past life every people intelligent if they work too hard and thought about past life anybody want to teach people they must learn to respect their important needs nice people has good ideas and good thoughts and they teach that to other people do not remember things quickly and slowly and be active to do anything Romania play many times in FIFA world cup and they have a good experience so many people like playing different types of games because stay long age does not care about bad things will happen always care about good things will happen agricultural business is very important that type of business easy to grow up real things will happen quickly and bad things do not want face anybody thoughtful ideas are interesting ideas for every person and people like that mexico is very beautiufll country their people love their improvement targets poland is upgrading their power with looking past years and experience romania football day by day going very well and they pretice very well england government acting very well and they will fullfill their targets spain football leagu is very intresting and barcelona is delightfull team real madrid playing very well and real madrid is one moto of spain sudan is very intresting country and they love all the games argentina old football playing ways remenber so many people specially old people russia people speaking different languages and usa people also speaking different languages thailand people work night time and they get enough money for their working naigeria population increased day by day and they will build good future for their children pakisthan cricket playing team is world famouse cricket playing team india agriculture areas are very big and their living areas are very big indonesia has several numbers of muslims and they keep everything very well denmark playing fifa world cup many times and their playing level is very well second marriage again third merriage and third merriage get third child next forth child any good work is very intresting to the world economy and truthfull works stay long time iran has numbers of oil reservation and their economy keep intresting way from oil italy people very intresting their culture and they find informations about their cultures agriculture business is very impotant business to the world for got several money atrective persionality is very impotant to all women and men for future planes those who like palying football and those who like playing chess, what are different of these two youth people want young age to get children when they old what happen every addresses of people are very intresting for any wrong thigs become right things people always want their life upgrade and day by day their money will increased so many countries presitents want sustainable future to bring their countries many presidents are very intelligent and they work hard to conferm their delightfull planes
                                                                                                                        ކާމިޔާބުގެ
    ވިދުމުގައި އެއްވެސް ކަރާމާތްތެރި ކަމެއް ނެތް ކަމަށް އަހަރެންނަށް ބައެއް ފަހަރު ވިސްނޭ.ހައްތަހާވެސް އަހަރެންގެ ފިކުރު ބެހެއްޓޭތޯ މި ބަލަނީ ދެފަރާތައް ފައިދާވާ ގޮތައް. މި ގުޅުމުގައި އިތުރު ހަރުފަތް ތަކަކަށް ދެވިދާނެ. އިތުރު ގޮތޮތަކަށް ރޭވިދާނެ. ނަމަވެސް ކޮށްމެ އުސޫލެއްގައި ވެސް އަހަރެންނަށް ކާމިޔާބު ލިބެންވާނެ. އަހަރެންގެ ކާމިޔާބަކީ އެއްވެސް އިންސާނަކަށް ބަދަލު ކުރެވޭނެ ކަމެއް ނޫން. އެއްގަމުގައި ދިރިއުޅޭ ކުކުޅު، ހާ ފަދައިން ގޮތެއް ފޮތެއް ނެތި އަހަރެން ނޫޅޭނަން. މިހެން ބުނާއިރު ވެސް އެނގޭ އެ އެއްޗެހި ކިބައީގައި ވެސް ކޮށްމެވެސް އުސޫލުތަކެއް ހުންނާނެ ކަން. އެއެއްޗެހި ކާންދޭ ފަރާތް ދަންނަފަދައިން އަބީރާހު އަހަރެންނާ މެދު ވިސްނަންޖެހޭނެ." ބަދަލުތަކަކަށް ނުވަތަ ބަދަލަކަށް ޖިންނި އަބީރާހުގެ ފަރާތުން ބޭނުން ވެއެވެ. ޖިންނި، ފާއިޒާ ކުރެން އެތަނުން ދިއުމުގެ އިޒުނައަކަށް އެދުނެވެ. ދެވަނަ ބައްދަލުވުމެއް އެއަށްވުރެ ކުލަގަދަކޮށްލުމުގެ ނިޔަތުގައެވެ. ދެން ޖިންނި ވިސްނީ ދެންވާނެ ބައްދަލުވުމަކާއި ބެހޭގޮތުންނެވެ. އަބީރާހު ހަނދާން ހުންނަވަރު ކޮށްލުމުގެ ގޮތުންނެވެ. އެއްވެސް އޮމާން ކަމެއް އެ ބައްދަލުވުމުން ދައްކާކަށް ބޭނުމެއް ނޫނެވެ. ގަދައަޅައި މަސައްކަތްކޮށްފި ނަމަ ޖިންނީގެ މަގުސަދުތައް ޙާސިލްވާނެ ކަން ޖިންނިއަށް އެނގެއެވެ. އިތުރު ރޭވުމަކަށް ބޭނުން ނުވާނެ ކަން ވެސް ޖިންނިއަށް ބައެއް ފަހަރު ވިސްނެމުން ދެއެވެ. ޖިންނި ސިކުނޑިގައި ނުލާފާކަން ވަރުގަދަޔަށް ދާސިއާ ދޭތެރޭގައި ދައްކާލުމަށް އުފެދިގެން ދިޔައެވެ. އެކަމުން އިތުރަށް ދިރިހުރުމަށްޓަކައި ޖިންނިއަށް ހިތްވަރު ލިބޭނެ އެއްޗެވެ. ކެޔުން ބޮޔުންމަތިން ޖިންނި ހަނދާން ނެތުނު ކަހަކލައެވެ. އެ ވިސްނުމަށް ތަން ދިނުމުގެ ގޮތުންނެވެ. އިތުރަށް މުޅިއުމުރުގައި ވެސް ކާން ނުޖެހޭނޭ ޖިންނި ހިތައްއެރިއެވެ. އެއި ދާސިއާއަށް ދައްކަން އެއުޅޭ ނުލަފާކަމުން އެހެން ޖިންނިނަށް ވެސް ފައިދާ ކުރާނެ އެއްޗެވެ. އިތުރަށް ދާސިއާ ދައްކާ ވާހަކައީގެ އަޑުއެހުމުގެ ބޭނުމެއް ނެތެވެ. އަދި އިތުރަށް ރޭވުމުގެ ބޭނުމެއް ވެސް ނެތެވެ. ޖިންނި އެއަށްވުރެ ކުޅަދާނައެވެ. ކާމިޔާބުގެ ތަޅުދަނޑިފަތި އޮތީ ޖިންނީގެ އަތުގައި ކަމަށް ޖިންނި ދެކެއެވެ. އެއްވެސް އިންސާނަކަށް އެކަން ބަދަލުނުކުރެވޭނެ ކަން ޖިންނި ޤަބޫލުކުރެއެވެ. އެއްވެސް ހާލެއްގައި މިފަދައިން ޖިންނިއަށް ލިބިފައި މިފަދަ ބާރުތަކަށް އިންސާނަކަށް ޖިންނިއަށް ޔަޤީންކަން ކުޑަ ނުކުރެވޭނެ ކަމަށްވެސް ޖިންނި ދެކެއެވެ. ލޯތްބަކީ ޖިންނީގެ ސިކުޑީގައި ބިންވަޅުނެގޭ ކަމެއް ކަމުން އެފަދަ ކަމަކަށް ފެންބޮވާގަނެ ދަނޑިވަޅު ނުބަލައި ލޯތްބައް އުމުރު ހުސްކޮށްލުމަކީ ޖިންނި ބޭނުންވާ ކަމެއްނޫނެވެ. އިންތިހާއަށް ދިރިއުޅުމައިގެން ކުރިއަށް ދިއުމަކީ އަދި ދިރިއުޅުމުގެ ހަރުފތްތައް ޝައުނޤުވެރި ކަމާއިއެކު ހަރުފަތަކަށް ފަހު ހަރުފަތެއް ކުރިއަށް ގެންދިއުމަކީ ޖިންނީގެ ހިތް ގޮވަގޮވާ އޮންނަ ކަމެކެވެ. ތާރީޙުގެ ދުވަސް
                                                                                                                               
                                                                                                                                            At Ben's Bakery we're dedicated to the craft of baking, and treat every bread, cake and pastry with the love it truly deserves. Come visit our store and taste some of our baked goods, fresh out of the oven. We promise you won't regret it.
                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                    The most popular baked goods at Ben's Bakery
           
                                                                                                                                                                                                Cookies                                                                                                                                                                     Croissants                                                                                                                                                                     Cupcakes                                                                                                                                                     We carefully source all the ingredients, and bake everything by hand in our bakery in Düsseldorf. This is why our large group of regular customers buy all of their bread, cakes and pastries at Ben's Bakery.
                                                                                                                                                                Who we are
                               
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                                                                                                                                            Canada
    This is a featured article. Click here for more information. Page semi-protected Listen to this article Canada From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Canada (disambiguation). Coordinates: 60°N 95°W Canada Vertical triband (red, white, red) with a red maple leaf in the centre Flag Motto: A Mari Usque Ad Mare (Latin) "From Sea to Sea" Anthem: "O Canada" Royal anthem: "God Save the Queen"[1] Projection of North America with Canada in green Capital Ottawa 45°24′N 75°40′W Largest city Toronto Official languages EnglishFrench Ethnic groups (2016)[2] List of ethnicities [show] Religion (2011)[3] List of religions [show] Demonym Canadian Government Federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy[4] • Monarch Elizabeth II • Governor General Julie Payette • Prime Minister Justin Trudeau Legislature Parliament • Upper house Senate • Lower house House of Commons Independence from the United Kingdom • Confederation July 1, 1867 • Statute of Westminster December 11, 1931 • Patriation April 17, 1982 Area • Total area 9,984,670 km2 (3,855,100 sq mi) (2nd) • Water (%) 8.92 • Total land area 9,093,507 km2 (3,511,023 sq mi) Population • Q2 2018 estimate 37,067,011[5] (38th) • 2016 census 35,151,728[6] • Density 3.92/km2 (10.2/sq mi) (228th) GDP (PPP) 2018 estimate • Total $1.847 trillion[7] (15th) • Per capita $49,775[7] (20th) GDP (nominal) 2018 estimate • Total $1.798 trillion[7] (10th) • Per capita $48,466[7] (15th) Gini (2012) 31.6[8] medium · 20th[9] HDI (2017) Increase 0.926[10] very high · 12th Currency Canadian dollar ($) (CAD) Time zone UTC−3.5 to −8 • Summer (DST) UTC−2.5 to −7 Date format yyyy-mm-dd (AD)[11] Driving side right Calling code +1 Internet TLD .ca Canada (French: [kanadɑ]) is a country located in the northern part of North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic to the Pacific and northward into the Arctic Ocean, covering 9.98 million square kilometres (3.85 million square miles), making it the world's second-largest country by total area. Canada's southern border with the United States is the world's longest bi-national land border. Its capital is Ottawa, and its three largest metropolitan areas are Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver. As a whole, Canada is sparsely populated, the majority of its land area being dominated by forest and tundra. Consequently, its population is highly urbanized, with over 80 percent of its inhabitants concentrated in large and medium-sized cities, many near the southern border. Canada's climate varies widely across its vast area, ranging from arctic weather in the north, to hot summers in the southern regions, with four distinct seasons. Various indigenous peoples have inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years prior to European colonization. Beginning in the 16th century, British and French expeditions explored, and later settled, along the Atlantic coast. As a consequence of various armed conflicts France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories and a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom. This widening autonomy was highlighted by the Statute of Westminster of 1931 and culminated in the Canada Act of 1982, which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the British parliament, except for the power to amend its constitution. Canada is a federal parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy, with Queen Elizabeth II being the head of state. The country is a realm within the Commonwealth of Nations, a member of the Francophonie and officially bilingual at the federal level. It ranks among the highest in international measurements of government transparency, civil liberties, quality of life, economic freedom, and education. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration from many other countries. Canada's long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its economy and culture. Canada is a developed country and has the fifteenth-highest nominal per capita income globally as well as the tenth-highest ranking in the Human Development Index. Its advanced economy is the tenth-largest in the world, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade networks. Canada is part of several major international and intergovernmental institutions or groupings including the United Nations, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, the G7 (formerly G8), the Group of Ten, the G20, the North American Free Trade Agreement and the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum. Contents 1 Etymology 2 History 2.1 Indigenous peoples 2.2 European colonization 2.3 Confederation and expansion 2.4 Early 20th century 2.5 Contemporary era 3 Geography and climate 4 Government and politics 4.1 Law 4.2 Foreign relations and military 4.3 Provinces and territories 5 Economy 5.1 Science and technology 6 Demographics 6.1 Education 6.2 Ethnicity 6.3 Religion 6.4 Languages 7 Culture 7.1 Symbols 7.2 Literature 7.3 Visual arts 7.4 Music 7.5 Sport 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 Further reading 12 External links Etymology Main article: Name of Canada While a variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origins of Canada, the name is now accepted as coming from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word kanata, meaning "village" or "settlement".[12] In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona.[13] Cartier later used the word Canada to refer not only to that particular village but to the entire area subject to Donnacona (the chief at Stadacona);[13] by 1545, European books and maps had begun referring to this small region along the Saint Lawrence River as Canada.[13] From the 16th to the early 18th century "Canada" referred to the part of New France that lay along the Saint Lawrence River.[14] In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada collectively named the Canadas; until their union as the British Province of Canada in 1841.[15] Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the legal name for the new country at the London Conference, and the word Dominion was conferred as the country's title.[16] The transition away from the use of Dominion was formally reflected in 1982 with the passage of the Canada Act, which refers only to Canada. Later that year, the name of the national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day.[17] The term Dominion is also used to distinguish the federal government from the provinces, though after the Second World War the term federal had replaced dominion.[18] History Main article: History of Canada See also: Timeline of Canadian history and List of years in Canada Further information: Historiography of Canada Indigenous peoples Colour-coded map of North America showing the distribution of North American language families north of Mexico Linguistic areas of North American Indigenous peoples at the time of European contact Indigenous peoples in present-day Canada include the First Nations, Inuit, and Métis,[19] the last being a mixed-blood people who originated in the mid-17th century when First Nations and Inuit people married European settlers.[19] The term "Aboriginal" as a collective noun is a specific term of art used in some legal documents, including the Constitution Act 1982.[20] The first inhabitants of North America are generally hypothesized to have migrated from Siberia by way of the Bering land bridge[21] and arrived at least 14,000 years ago.[22] The Paleo-Indian archaeological sites at Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada.[23] The characteristics of Canadian indigenous societies included permanent settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks.[24][25] Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries and have only been discovered through archeological investigations.[26] The indigenous population at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000[27] and two million,[28] with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.[29] As a consequence of European colonization, the population of Canada's indigenous peoples declined by forty to eighty percent, and several First Nations, such as the Beothuk, disappeared.[30] The decline is attributed to several causes, including the transfer of European diseases, such as influenza, measles, and smallpox to which they had no natural immunity,[27][31] conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with the colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of indigenous lands to settlers and the subsequent collapse of several nations' self-sufficiency.[32][33] Although not without conflict, European Canadians' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful.[34] First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada, particularly for their role in assisting European coureur des bois and voyageurs in the exploration of the continent during the North American fur trade.[35] The Crown and indigenous peoples began interactions during the European colonization period, though the Inuit, in general, had more limited interaction with European settlers.[36] However, from the late 18th century, European Canadians encouraged indigenous peoples to assimilate into their own culture.[37] These attempts reached a climax in the late 19th and early 20th centuries with forced integration and relocations.[38] A period of redress is underway, which started with the appointment of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada by the Government of Canada in 2008.[39] European colonization The first known attempt at European colonization began when Norsemen settled briefly at L'Anse aux Meadows in Newfoundland around 1000 AD.[40] No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when Italian seafarer John Cabot explored and claimed Canada's Atlantic coast in the name of King Henry VII of England.[41][42] Then Basque and Portuguese mariners established seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast in the early 16th century.[43] In 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartier explored the Gulf of Saint Lawrence where, on July 24, he planted a 10-metre (33 ft) cross bearing the words "Long Live the King of France" and took possession of the territory New France in the name of King Francis I.[44] In general the settlements appear to have been short-lived, possibly due to the similarity of outputs producible in Scandinavia and northern Canada and the problems of navigating trade routes at that time.[45] In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, by the royal prerogative of Queen Elizabeth I, founded St. John's, Newfoundland, as the first North American English colony.[46] French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent European settlements at Port Royal (in 1605) and Quebec City (in 1608).[47] Among the colonists of New France, Canadiens extensively settled the Saint Lawrence River valley and Acadians settled the present-day Maritimes, while fur traders and Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and the Mississippi watershed to Louisiana.[48] The Beaver Wars broke out in the mid-17th century over control of the North American fur trade.[49] Benjamin West's "The Death of General Wolfe" dying in front of British flag while attended by officers and native allies Benjamin West's The Death of General Wolfe (1771) dramatizes James Wolfe's death during the Battle of the Plains of Abraham at Quebec. The English established additional settlements in Newfoundland, beginning in 1610[50] and the Thirteen Colonies to the south were founded soon after.[43] A series of four wars erupted in colonial North America between 1689 and 1763; the later wars of the period constituted the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War.[51] Mainland Nova Scotia came under British rule with the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht, and Canada and most of New France came under British rule in 1763 after the Seven Years' War.[52] The Royal Proclamation of 1763 established First Nation treaty rights, created the Province of Quebec out of New France, and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia.[17] St. John's Island (now Prince Edward Island) became a separate colony in 1769.[53] To avert conflict in Quebec, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act of 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley. More importantly, the Quebec Act afforded Quebec special autonomy and rights of self-administration at a time that the Thirteen Colonies were increasingly agitating against British rule.[54] It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law there, staving off the growth of an independence movement in contrast to the Thirteen Colonies. The Proclamation and the Quebec Act in turn angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, further fuelling anti-British sentiment in the years prior to the American Revolution.[17] After the successful American War of Independence, the 1783 Treaty of Paris recognized the independence of the newly formed United States and set the terms of peace, ceding British North American territories south of the Great Lakes to the new country.[55] The American war of independence also caused a large out-migration of Loyalists the settlers who had fought against American independence. Many moved to Canada, particularly Atlantic Canada, where their arrival changed the demographic distribution of the existing territories. New Brunswick was in turn split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes which led to the incorporation of Saint John, New Brunswick to become Canada's first city.[56] To accommodate the influx of English-speaking Loyalists in Central Canada, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province of Canada into French-speaking Lower Canada (later Quebec) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario), granting each its own elected legislative assembly.[57] The Canadas were the main front in the War of 1812 between the United States and the United Kingdom. Peace came in 1815; no boundaries were changed. Immigration resumed at a higher level, with over 960,000 arrivals from Britain between 1815 and 1850.[58] New arrivals included refugees escaping the Great Irish Famine as well as Gaelic-speaking Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances.[59] Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 percent of Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891.[27] The desire for responsible government resulted in the abortive Rebellions of 1837.[60] The Durham Report subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture.[17] The Act of Union merged the Canadas into a united Province of Canada and responsible government was established for all provinces of British North America by 1849.[61] The signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the Oregon boundary dispute, extending the border westward along the 49th parallel. This paved the way for British colonies on Vancouver Island (1849) and in British Columbia (1858).[62] In 1867, the same year as Canadian Confederation, Britain declined to purchase for Canada the Alaska territory that was to that point tenuously held by Russia. With the United States purchasing Alaska instead, clearly demarcated borders for Canada, although there would continue to be some disputes about the exact demarcation of the Alaska-Yukon and Alaska-BC border for years to come.[63] Confederation and expansion Refer to caption An animated map showing the growth and change of Canada's provinces and territories since Confederation in 1867 Following several constitutional conferences, the Constitution Act officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, initially with four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.[64][65] Canada assumed control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories, where the Métis' grievances ignited the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870.[66] British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had been united in 1866) joined the confederation in 1871, while Prince Edward Island joined in 1873.[67] To open the West to European immigration, parliament also approved sponsoring the construction of three transcontinental railways (including the Canadian Pacific Railway), opening the prairies to settlement with the Dominion Lands Act, and establishing the North-West Mounted Police to assert its authority over this territory.[68][69] In 1898, during the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories, parliament created the Yukon Territory. Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905.[67] Early 20th century Group of armed soldiers marching past a wrecked tank and a body Canadian soldiers and a Mark II tank at the Battle of Vimy Ridge in 1917 Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the Constitution Act, 1867, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought Canada into World War I.[70] Volunteers sent to the Western Front later became part of the Canadian Corps, which played a substantial role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major engagements of the war.[71] Out of approximately 625,000 Canadians who served in World War I, some 60,000 were killed and another 172,000 were wounded.[72] The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when the Unionist Cabinet's proposal to augment the military's dwindling number of active members with conscription was met with vehement objections from French-speaking Quebecers.[73] The Military Service Act brought in compulsory military service, though it, coupled with disputes over French language schools outside Quebec, deeply alienated Francophone Canadians and temporarily split the Liberal Party.[73] In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain,[71] and the 1931 Statute of Westminster affirmed Canada's independence.[4] Crew of a Sherman-tank resting while parked Canadian crew of a Sherman tank, south of Vaucelles, France, during the Battle of Normandy in June 1944 The Great Depression in Canada during the early 1930s saw an economic downturn, leading to hardship across the country.[74] In response to the downturn, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Saskatchewan introduced many elements of a welfare state (as pioneered by Tommy Douglas) in the 1940s and 1950s.[75] On the advice of Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, war with Germany was declared effective September 10, 1939, by King George VI, seven days after the United Kingdom. The delay underscored Canada's independence.[71] The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939. In all, over a million Canadians served in the armed forces during World War II and approximately 42,000 were killed and another 55,000 were wounded.[76] Canadian troops played important roles in many key battles of the war, including the failed 1942 Dieppe Raid, the Allied invasion of Italy, the Normandy landings, the Battle of Normandy, and the Battle of the Scheldt in 1944.[71] Canada provided asylum for the Dutch monarchy while that country was occupied and is credited by the Netherlands for major contributions to its liberation from Nazi Germany.[77] The Canadian economy boomed during the war as its industries manufactured military materiel for Canada, Britain, China, and the Soviet Union.[71] Despite another Conscription Crisis in Quebec in 1944, Canada finished the war with a large army and strong economy.[78] Contemporary era Harold Alexander at desk receiving legislation At Rideau Hall, Governor General the Viscount Alexander of Tunis (centre) receives the bill finalizing the union of Newfoundland and Canada on March 31, 1949 The financial crisis of the Great Depression had led the Dominion of Newfoundland to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a crown colony ruled by a British governor.[79] After two bitter referendums, Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province.[80] Canada's post-war economic growth, combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments, led to the emergence of a new Canadian identity, marked by the adoption of the Maple Leaf Flag in 1965,[81] the implementation of official bilingualism (English and French) in 1969,[82] and the institution of official multiculturalism in 1971.[83] Socially democratic programs were also instituted, such as Medicare, the Canada Pension Plan, and Canada Student Loans, though provincial governments, particularly Quebec and Alberta, opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions.[84] Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the Canada Act, the patriation of Canada's constitution from the United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[85][86][87] Canada had established complete sovereignty as an independent country, although the Queen retained her role as monarch of Canada.[88][89] In 1999, Nunavut became Canada's third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government.[90] At the same time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, giving birth to a secular nationalist movement.[91] The radical Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) ignited the October Crisis with a series of bombings and kidnappings in 1970[92] and the sovereignist Parti Québécois was elected in 1976, organizing an unsuccessful referendum on sovereignty-association in 1980. Attempts to accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through the Meech Lake Accord failed in 1990.[93] This led to the formation of the Bloc Québécois in Quebec and the invigoration of the Reform Party of Canada in the West.[94][95] A second referendum followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of 50.6 to 49.4 percent.[96] In 1997, the Supreme Court ruled that unilateral secession by a province would be unconstitutional and the Clarity Act was passed by parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation.[93] In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion of Air India Flight 182 in 1985, the largest mass murder in Canadian history;[97] the École Polytechnique massacre in 1989, a university shooting targeting female students;[98] and the Oka Crisis of 1990,[99] the first of a number of violent confrontations between the government and indigenous groups.[100] Canada also joined the Gulf War in 1990 as part of a US-led coalition force and was active in several peacekeeping missions in the 1990s, including the UNPROFOR mission in the former Yugoslavia.[101] Canada sent troops to Afghanistan in 2001, but declined to join the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in 2003.[102] In 2011, Canadian forces participated in the NATO-led intervention into the Libyan Civil War,[103] and also became involved in battling the Islamic State insurgency in Iraq in the mid-2010s.[104] Geography and climate Main articles: Geography of Canada and Climate of Canada Köppen climate types of Canada Canada occupies much of the continent of North America, sharing land borders with the contiguous United States to the south, and the U.S. state of Alaska to the northwest. Canada stretches from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west; to the north lies the Arctic Ocean.[105] Greenland is to the northeast and to the southeast Canada shares a maritime boundary with the Republic of France's overseas collectivity of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, the last vestige of New France.[106] By total area (including its waters), Canada is the second-largest country in the world, after Russia. By land area alone, however, Canada ranks fourth, the difference being due to it having the world's largest proportion of fresh water lakes.[107] Of Canada's thirteen provinces and territories, only two are landlocked (Alberta and Saskatchewan) while the other eleven all directly border one of three oceans. Canada is home to the world's northernmost settlement, Canadian Forces Station Alert, on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island – latitude 82.5°N – which lies 817 kilometres (508 mi) from the North Pole.[108] Much of the Canadian Arctic is covered by ice and permafrost. Canada has the longest coastline in the world, with a total length of 243,042 kilometres (151,019 mi);[109] additionally, its border with the United States is the world's longest land border, stretching 8,891 kilometres (5,525 mi).[110] Three of Canada's arctic islands, Baffin Island, Victoria Island and Ellesmere Island, are among the ten largest in the world.[111] Since the end of the last glacial period, Canada has consisted of eight distinct forest regions, including extensive boreal forest on the Canadian Shield.[112] Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes—563 greater than 100 km2 (39 sq mi)—which is more than any other country, containing much of the world's fresh water.[113][114] There are also fresh-water glaciers in the Canadian Rockies and the Coast Mountains.[115] The Mount Meager massif as seen from the east near Pemberton. Summits left to right are Capricorn Mountain, Mount Meager and Plinth Peak. Canada is geologically active, having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes, notably Mount Meager massif, Mount Garibaldi, Mount Cayley massif, and the Mount Edziza volcanic complex.[116] The volcanic eruption of the Tseax Cone in 1775 was among Canada's worst natural disasters, killing an estimated 2,000 Nisga'a people and destroying their village in the Nass River valley of northern British Columbia.[117] The eruption produced a 22.5-kilometre (14.0 mi) lava flow, and, according to Nisga'a legend, blocked the flow of the Nass River.[118] Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental climate, where daily average temperatures are near −15 °C (5 °F), but can drop below −40 °C (−40 °F) with severe wind chills.[119] In noncoastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F), with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding 40 °C (104 °F).[120] Government and politics Main articles: Government of Canada and Politics of Canada Canada is described as a "full democracy",[121] with a tradition of liberalism,[122] and an egalitarian,[123] moderate political ideology.[124] An emphasis on social justice has been a distinguishing element of Canada's political culture.[125] Peace, order, and good government are founding principles of the Canadian government.[126] Canada has been dominated by two relatively centrist political parties at the federal level,[127][128][129][130] the centre-left Liberal Party of Canada and the centre-right Conservative Party of Canada (or its predecessors).[131] The historically predominant Liberal Party position themselves at the center of the Canadian political spectrum, with the Conservative Party positioned on the right and the New Democratic Party occupying the left.[127][132][129][132] Far-right and far-left politics have never been a prominent force in Canadian society.[133][134] Five parties had representatives elected to the federal parliament in the 2015 election: the Liberal Party who currently form the government, the Conservative Party who are the Official Opposition, the New Democratic Party, the Bloc Québécois, and the Green Party of Canada.[135] Elizabeth II Monarch Julie Payette Governor General Justin Trudeau Prime Minister Canada has a parliamentary system within the context of a constitutional monarchy, the monarchy of Canada being the foundation of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches.[136][137][138] The Canadian monarchy is a separate legal institution from the monarchy of the United Kingdom, though the two offices are held by the same individual.[139] The sovereign is Queen Elizabeth II, who is also monarch of 15 other Commonwealth countries and each of Canada's 10 provinces. As such, the Queen's representative, the Governor General of Canada (at present Julie Payette), carries out most of the federal royal duties in Canada.[140][141] A building with a central clock tower rising from a block Parliament Hill in Canada's capital city, Ottawa The direct participation of the royal and viceroyal figures in areas of governance is limited.[138][142][143] In practice, their use of the executive powers is directed by the Cabinet, a committee of ministers of the Crown responsible to the elected House of Commons of Canada and chosen and headed by the Prime Minister of Canada (at present Justin Trudeau),[144] the head of government. The governor general or monarch may, though, in certain crisis situations exercise their power without ministerial advice.[142] To ensure the stability of government, the governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the person who is the current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a plurality in the House of Commons.[145] The Prime Minister's Office (PMO) is thus one of the most powerful institutions in government, initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval and selecting for appointment by the Crown, besides the aforementioned, the governor general, lieutenant governors, senators, federal court judges, and heads of Crown corporations and government agencies.[142] The leader of the party with the second-most seats usually becomes the Leader of Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check.[146] Canadian Senate chamber long hall with two opposing banks of seats with historical paintings The Senate chamber within the Centre Block on Parliament Hill Each of the 338 members of parliament in the House of Commons is elected by simple plurality in an electoral district or riding. General elections must be called by the governor general, either on the advice of the prime minister or if the government loses a confidence vote in the House.[147][148] Constitutionally, an election may be held no more than five years after the preceding election, although the Canada Elections Act limits this to four years with a fixed election date in October. The 105 members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, serve until age 75.[149] Canada's federal structure divides government responsibilities between the federal government and the ten provinces. Provincial legislatures are unicameral and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of Commons.[143] Canada's three territories also have legislatures, but these are not sovereign and have fewer constitutional responsibilities than the provinces.[150] The territorial legislatures also differ structurally from their provincial counterparts.[151] The Bank of Canada is the central bank of the country. In addition, the Minister of Finance and Minister of Industry utilize the Statistics Canada agency for financial planning and economic policy development.[152] The Bank of Canada is the sole authority authorized to issue currency in the form of Canadian bank notes.[153] The bank does not issue Canadian coins; they are issued by the Royal Canadian Mint.[154] Law Main article: Law of Canada The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of the country, and consists of written text and unwritten conventions.[155] The Constitution Act, 1867 (known as the British North America Act prior to 1982), affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments.[156] The Statute of Westminster 1931 granted full autonomy and the Constitution Act, 1982, ended all legislative ties to the UK, as well as adding a constitutional amending formula and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.[157] The Charter guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be over-ridden by any government—though a notwithstanding clause allows the federal parliament and provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five years.[158] Two sides of a silver medal: the profile of Queen Victoria and the inscription "Victoria Regina" on one side, a man in European garb shaking hands with an Aboriginal with the inscription Indian Treaty No. 187 on the other The Indian Chiefs Medal, presented to commemorate the Numbered Treaties of 1871–1921 The Indian Act, various treaties and case laws were established to mediate relations between Europeans and native peoples.[159] Most notably, a series of eleven treaties known as the Numbered Treaties were signed between the indigenous and the reigning Monarch of Canada between 1871 and 1921.[160] These treaties are agreements with the Canadian Crown-in-Council, administered by Canadian Aboriginal law, and overseen by the Minister of Indigenous and Northern Development. The role of the treaties and the rights they support were reaffirmed by Section Thirty-five of the Constitution Act, 1982.[159] These rights may include provision of services, such as health care, and exemption from taxation.[161] The legal and policy framework within which Canada and First Nations operate was further formalized in 2005, through the First Nations–Federal Crown Political Accord.[159] Supreme Court of Canada building The Supreme Court of Canada in Ottawa, west of Parliament Hill Canada's judiciary plays an important role in interpreting laws and has the power to strike down Acts of Parliament that violate the constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court and final arbiter and has been led since December 18, 2017 by Chief Justice Richard Wagner.[162] Its nine members are appointed by the governor general on the advice of the prime minister and minister of justice. All judges at the superior and appellate levels are appointed after consultation with non-governmental legal bodies. The federal Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts in the provincial and territorial jurisdictions.[163] Common law prevails everywhere except in Quebec, where civil law predominates. Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada.[164] Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is officially a provincial responsibility, conducted by provincial and municipal police forces.[165] However, in most rural areas and some urban areas, policing responsibilities are contracted to the federal Royal Canadian Mounted Police.[166] Foreign relations and military Main articles: Foreign relations of Canada and Military history of Canada Pictured from Left to right: C.S. Ritchie, P.E. Renaud, Elizabeth MacCallum, Lucien Moraud, Escott Reid, W.F. Chipman, Lester Pearson, J.H. King, Louis St. Laurent, Rt. Hon. W.L. Mackenzie King, Gordon Graydon, M.J. Coldwell, Cora Casselman, Jean Desy, Hume Wrong, Louis Rasminsky, L.D. Wilgress, M.A. Pope, R. Chaput The Canadian Delegation to the United Nations Conference on International Organization, San Francisco, May 1945 Canada is recognized as a middle power for its role in international affairs with a tendency to pursue multilateral solutions.[167] Canada's foreign policy based on international peacekeeping and security is carried out through coalitions and international organizations, and through the work of numerous federal institutions.[168] Canada's peacekeeping role during the 20th century has played a major role in its global image.[169] The strategy of the Canadian government's foreign aid policy reflects an emphasis to meet the Millennium Development Goals, while also providing assistance in response to foreign humanitarian crises.[170] Canada was a founding member of the United Nations and has membership in the World Trade Organization, the G20 and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).[167] Canada is also a member of various other international and regional organizations and forums for economic and cultural affairs.[171] Canada acceded to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights in 1976.[172] Canada joined the Organization of American States (OAS) in 1990 and hosted the OAS General Assembly in 2000 and the 3rd Summit of the Americas in 2001.[173] Canada seeks to expand its ties to Pacific Rim economies through membership in the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC).[174] Prime Minister Trudeau and U.S. President Trump meet in Washington, February 2017 Canada and the United States share the world's longest undefended border, co-operate on military campaigns and exercises, and are each other's largest trading partner.[175][176] Canada nevertheless has an independent foreign policy, most notably maintaining full relations with Cuba, and declining to officially participate in the 2003 invasion of Iraq.[177] Canada also maintains historic ties to the United Kingdom and France and to other former British and French colonies through Canada's membership in the Commonwealth of Nations and the Francophonie.[178] Canada is noted for having a positive relationship with the Netherlands, owing, in part, to its contribution to the Dutch liberation during World War II.[77] Canada's strong attachment to the British Empire and Commonwealth led to major participation in British military efforts in the Second Boer War, World War I and World War II.[179] Since then, Canada has been an advocate for multilateralism, making efforts to resolve global issues in collaboration with other nations.[180][181] During the Cold War, Canada was a major contributor to UN forces in the Korean War and founded the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) in co-operation with the United States to defend against potential aerial attacks from the Soviet Union.[182] During the Suez Crisis of 1956, future Prime Minister Lester B. Pearson eased tensions by proposing the inception of the United Nations Peacekeeping Force, for which he was awarded the 1957 Nobel Peace Prize.[183] As this was the first UN peacekeeping mission, Pearson is often credited as the inventor of the concept.[184] Canada has since served in over 50 peacekeeping missions, including every UN peacekeeping effort until 1989,[71] and has since maintained forces in international missions in Rwanda, the former Yugoslavia, and elsewhere; Canada has sometimes faced controversy over its involvement in foreign countries, notably in the 1993 Somalia Affair.[185] Canadian Grenadier Guards in Kandahar Province standing by road with armoured car Soldiers from the Canadian Grenadier Guards in Kandahar Province in Afghanistan, pictured, fought with Dutch soldiers against Afghan insurgents. In 2001, Canada deployed troops to Afghanistan as part of the US stabilization force and the UN-authorized, NATO-led International Security Assistance Force.[186] In February 2007, Canada, Italy, the United Kingdom, Norway, and Russia announced their joint commitment to a $1.5-billion project to help develop vaccines for developing nations, and called on other countries to join them.[187] In August 2007, Canada's territorial claims in the Arctic were challenged after a Russian underwater expedition to the North Pole; Canada has considered that area to be sovereign territory since 1925.[188] The nation employs a professional, volunteer military force of approximately 79,000 active personnel and 32,250 reserve personnel.[189] The unified Canadian Forces (CF) comprise the Canadian Army, Royal Canadian Navy, and Royal Canadian Air Force. In 2013, Canada's military expenditure totalled approximately C$19 billion, or around 1% of the country's GDP.[190][191] Following the 2016 Defence Policy Review, the Canadian government announced a 70% increase to the country's defence budget over the next decade. The Canadian Forces will acquire 88 fighter planes and 15 naval surface combatants, the latter as part of the National Shipbuilding Procurement Strategy. Canada's total military expenditure is expected to reach C$32.7 billion by 2027.[192] Provinces and territories Main article: Provinces and territories of Canada See also: Canadian federalism Canada is a federation composed of ten provinces and three territories. In turn, these may be grouped into four main regions: Western Canada, Central Canada, Atlantic Canada, and Northern Canada (Eastern Canada refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together). Provinces have more autonomy than territories, having responsibility for social programs such as health care, education, and welfare.[193] Together, the provinces collect more revenue than the federal government, an almost unique structure among federations in the world. Using its spending powers, the federal government can initiate national policies in provincial areas, such as the Canada Health Act; the provinces can opt out of these, but rarely do so in practice. Equalization payments are made by the federal government to ensure that reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.[194] Clickable map of Canada exhibiting its ten provinces and three territories, and their capitals A clickable map of Canada exhibiting its ten provinces and three territories, and their capitals. About this image Economy Main articles: Economy of Canada and Economic history of Canada Canada is the world's tenth-largest economy as of 2016, with a nominal GDP of approximately US$1.52 trillion.[195] It is a member of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and the Group of Eight (G8), and is one of the world's top ten trading nations, with a highly globalized economy.[196][197] Canada is a mixed economy, ranking above the US and most western European nations on The Heritage Foundation's index of economic freedom,[198] and experiencing a relatively low level of income disparity.[199] The country's average household disposable income per capita is over US$23,900, higher than the OECD average.[200] Furthermore, the Toronto Stock Exchange is the seventh-largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization, listing over 1,500 companies with a combined market capitalization of over US$2 trillion as of 2015.[201] Chart of exports of Canada by value with percentages Tree-map of Canada's goods exports in 2014[202] In 2014, Canada's exports totalled over C$528 billion, while its imported goods were worth over $524 billion, of which approximately $351 billion originated from the United States, $49 billion from the European Union, and $35 billion from China.[203] The country's 2014 trade surplus totalled C$5.1 billion, compared with a C$46.9 billion surplus in 2008.[204][205] Since the early 20th century, the growth of Canada's manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to an urbanized, industrial one.[206] Like many other developed countries, the Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three-quarters of the country's workforce.[207] However, Canada is unusual among developed countries in the importance of its primary sector, in which the forestry and petroleum industries are two of the most prominent components.[208] Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy.[209] Atlantic Canada possesses vast offshore deposits of natural gas, and Alberta also hosts large oil and gas resources. The vastness of the Athabasca oil sands and other assets results in Canada having a 13% share of global oil reserves, comprising the world's third-largest share after Venezuela and Saudi Arabia.[210] Canada is additionally one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural products; the Canadian Prairies are one of the most important global producers of wheat, canola, and other grains.[211] Canada's Ministry of Natural Resources provides statistics regarding its major exports; the country is a leading exporter of zinc, uranium, gold, nickel, aluminum, steel, iron ore, coking coal and lead.[212] Many towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are sustainable because of nearby mines or sources of timber. Canada also has a sizeable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec, with automobiles and aeronautics representing particularly important industries.[213] Canada's economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since World War II.[214] The Automotive Products Trade Agreement of 1965 opened Canada's borders to trade in the automobile manufacturing industry.[215] In the 1970s, concerns over energy self-sufficiency and foreign ownership in the manufacturing sectors prompted Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau's Liberal government to enact the National Energy Program (NEP) and the Foreign Investment Review Agency (FIRA).[216] In the 1980s, Prime Minister Brian Mulroney's Progressive Conservatives abolished the NEP and changed the name of FIRA to Investment Canada, to encourage foreign investment.[217] The Canada – United States Free Trade Agreement (FTA) of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries, while the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) expanded the free-trade zone to include Mexico in 1994.[211] Science and technology Main articles: Science and technology in Canada and Telecommunications in Canada A shuttle in space, with Earth in the background. A mechanical arm labelled "Canada" rises from the shuttle. The Canadarm robotic manipulator in action on Space Shuttle Discovery during the STS-116 mission in 2006 In 2015, Canada spent approximately C$31.6 billion on domestic research and development, of which around $7 billion was provided by the federal and provincial governments.[218] As of 2015, the country has produced thirteen Nobel laureates in physics, chemistry, and medicine,[219][220] and was ranked fourth worldwide for scientific research quality in a major 2012 survey of international scientists.[221] It is furthermore home to the headquarters of a number of global technology firms.[222] Canada has one of the highest levels of Internet access in the world, with over 33 million users, equivalent to around 94 percent of its total 2014 population.[223] The Canadian Space Agency operates a highly active space program, conducting deep-space, planetary, and aviation research, and developing rockets and satellites.[224] Canada was the third country to design and construct a satellite after the Soviet Union and the United States, with the 1962 Alouette 1 launch.[225] Canada is a participant in the International Space Station (ISS), and is a pioneer in space robotics, having constructed the Canadarm, Canadarm2 and Dextre robotic manipulators for the ISS and NASA's Space Shuttle.[226] Since the 1960s, Canada's aerospace industry has designed and built numerous marques of satellite, including Radarsat-1 and 2, ISIS and MOST.[227] Canada has also produced one of the world's most successful and widely used sounding rockets, the Black Brant; over 1,000 Black Brants have been launched since the rocket's introduction in 1961.[228] In 1984, Marc Garneau became Canada's first male astronaut, followed by Canada's second and first female astronaut Roberta Bondar in 1992.[229] Chris Hadfield became the first Canadian to walk in space.[230][231] Demographics Main article: Demographics of Canada Two-colour map of Windsor area with towns along the St. Lawrence river The Quebec City–Windsor Corridor is the most densely populated and heavily industrialized region of Canada, spanning 1,200 kilometres (750 miles).[232] Population pyramid 2016 The Canada 2016 Census enumerated a total population of 35,151,728, an increase of around 5.0 percent over the 2011 figure.[233][234] Between 2011 and May 2016, Canada's population grew by 1.7 million people, with immigrants accounting for two-thirds of the increase.[235] Between 1990 and 2008, the population increased by 5.6 million, equivalent to 20.4 percent overall growth.[236] The main drivers of population growth are immigration and, to a lesser extent, natural growth.[237] Canada has one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world,[238] driven mainly by economic policy and, to a lesser extent, family reunification.[239][240] The Canadian public as-well as the major political parties support the current level of immigration.[239][241] In 2014, a total of 260,400 immigrants were admitted to Canada, mainly from Asia.[242] The Canadian government anticipated between 280,000 and 305,000 new permanent residents in the following years,[243][244] a similar number of immigrants as in recent years.[245] New immigrants settle mostly in major urban areas such as Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver.[246] Canada also accepts large numbers of refugees,[247] accounting for over 10 percent of annual global refugee resettlements.[248] Canada's population density, at 3.7 inhabitants per square kilometre (9.6/sq mi), is among the lowest in the world.[249] Canada spans latitudinally from the 83rd parallel north to the 41st parallel north, and approximately 95% of the population is found south of the 55th parallel north.[250] About four-fifths of the population lives within 150 kilometres (93 mi) of the contiguous United States border.[251] The most densely populated part of the country, accounting for nearly 50 percent, is the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor, situated in Southern Quebec and Southern Ontario along the Great Lakes and the Saint Lawrence River.[232][250] An additional 30 percent live along the British Columbia Lower Mainland, and the Calgary–Edmonton Corridor in Alberta.[252] In common with many other developed countries, Canada is experiencing a demographic shift towards an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2006, the average age was 39.5 years;[253] by 2011, it had risen to approximately 39.9 years.[254] As of 2013, the average life expectancy for Canadians is 81 years.[255] The majority of Canadians (69.9%) live in family households, 26.8% report living alone, and those living with unrelated persons reported at 3.7%.[256] The average size of a household in 2006 was 2.5 people.[256] Largest census metropolitan areas in Canada by population (2016 Census) viewtalkedit CMA Province Population CMA Province Population Toronto Ontario 5,928,040 London Ontario 494,069 Montreal Quebec 4,098,927 St. Catharines–Niagara Ontario 406,074 Vancouver British Columbia 2,463,431 Halifax Nova Scotia 403,390 Calgary Alberta 1,392,609 Oshawa Ontario 379,848 Ottawa–Gatineau Ontario–Quebec 1,323,783 Victoria British Columbia 367,770 Edmonton Alberta 1,321,426 Windsor Ontario 329,144 Quebec Quebec 800,296 Saskatoon Saskatchewan 295,095 Winnipeg Manitoba 778,489 Regina Saskatchewan 236,481 Hamilton Ontario 747,545 Sherbrooke Quebec 212,105 Kitchener–Cambridge–Waterloo Ontario 523,894 St. John's Newfoundland and Labrador 205,955 Education Main article: Education in Canada According to a 2012 report by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Canada is one of the most educated countries in the world;[257] the country ranks first worldwide in the number of adults having tertiary education, with 51 percent of Canadian adults having attained at least an undergraduate college or university degree.[257] Canada spends about 5.3% of its GDP on education.[258] The country invests heavily in tertiary education (more than US$20,000 per student).[259] As of 2014, 89 percent of adults aged 25 to 64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, compared to an OECD average of 75 percent.[200] Since the adoption of section 23 of the Constitution Act, 1982, education in both English and French has been available in most places across Canada.[260] Canadian provinces and territories are responsible for education provision.[261] The mandatory school age ranges between 5–7 to 16–18 years,[262] contributing to an adult literacy rate of 99 percent.[105] In 2002, 43 percent of Canadians aged 25 to 64 possessed a post-secondary education; for those aged 25 to 34, the rate of post-secondary education reached 51 percent.[263] The Programme for International Student Assessment indicates that Canadian students perform well above the OECD average, particularly in mathematics, science, and reading.[264][265] Ethnicity Main article: Canadians Self-reported ethnic origins of Canadians based on geographic region (Census 2016)[2] indigenous North American (5.06%) Other North American [a] (27.61%) Europe (46.74%) Caribbean and Central and South America (3.38%) Africa (2.54%) Asia (14.47%) Oceania (0.20%) According to the 2016 census, the country's largest self-reported ethnic origin is Canadian (accounting for 32% of the population),[b] followed by English (18.3%), Scottish (13.9%), French (13.6%), Irish (13.4%), German (9.6%), Chinese (5.1%), Italian (4.6%), First Nations (4.4%), Indian (4.0%), and Ukrainian (3.9%).[266] There are 600 recognized First Nations governments or bands, encompassing a total of 1,525,565 people.[267] Canada's indigenous population is growing at almost twice the national rate, and four percent of Canada's population claimed an indigenous identity in 2006. Another 22.3 percent of the population belonged to a non-indigenous visible minority.[268] In 2016, the largest visible minority groups were South Asian (5.6%), Chinese (5.1%) and Black (3.5%).[268] Between 2011 and 2016, the visible minority population rose by 18.4 percent.[268] In 1961, less than two percent of Canada's population (about 300,000 people) were members of visible minority groups.[269] Indigenous peoples are not considered a visible minority under the Employment Equity Act,[270] and this is the definition that Statistics Canada also uses. Religion Main article: Religion in Canada Canada is religiously diverse, encompassing a wide range of beliefs and customs. Canada has no official church, and the government is officially committed to religious pluralism.[271] Freedom of religion in Canada is a constitutionally protected right, allowing individuals to assemble and worship without limitation or interference.[272] The practice of religion is now generally considered a private matter throughout society and the state.[273] With Christianity in decline after having once been central and integral to Canadian culture and daily life,[274] Canada has become a post-Christian, secular state.[275][276][277][278] The majority of Canadians consider religion to be unimportant in their daily lives,[279] but still believe in God.[280] According to the 2011 census, 67.3% of Canadians identify as Christian; of these, Roman Catholics make up the largest group, accounting for 38.7% of the population. Much of the remainder is made up of Protestants, who accounted for approximately 27% in a 2011 survey.[281][282] The largest Protestant denomination is the United Church of Canada (accounting for 6.1% of Canadians), followed by Anglicans (5.0%), and Baptists (1.9%).[3] Secularization has been growing since the 1960s.[283][284] In 2011, 23.9% declared no religious affiliation, compared to 16.5% in 2001.[285] The remaining 8.8% are affiliated with non-Christian religions, the largest of which are Islam (3.2%), Hinduism (1.5%), Sikhism (1.4%).[3] Languages Main article: Languages of Canada Map of Canada with English speakers and French speakers at a percentage Approximately 98% of Canadians can speak either or both English and French:[286] English – 56.9% English and French – 16.1% French – 21.3% Sparsely populated area ( < 0.4="" persons="" per="" km2)="" a="" multitude="" of="" languages="" are="" used="" by="" canadians,="" with="" english="" and="" french="" (the="" official="" languages)="" being="" the="" mother="" tongues="" of="" approximately="" 56%="" and="" 21%="" of="" canadians,="" respectively.[287]="" as="" of="" the="" 2016="" census,="" just="" over="" 7.3="" million="" canadians="" listed="" a="" non-official="" language="" as="" their="" mother="" tongue.="" some="" of="" the="" most="" common="" non-official="" first="" languages="" include="" chinese="" (1,227,680="" first-language="" speakers),="" punjabi="" (501,680),="" spanish="" (458,850),="" tagalog="" (431,385),="" arabic="" (419,895),="" german="" (384,040),="" and="" italian="" (375,645).[287]="" canada's="" federal="" government="" practices="" official="" bilingualism,="" which="" is="" applied="" by="" the="" commissioner="" of="" official="" languages="" in="" consonance="" with="" section="" 16="" of="" the="" canadian="" charter="" of="" rights="" and="" freedoms="" and="" the="" federal="" official="" languages="" act="" english="" and="" french="" have="" equal="" status="" in="" federal="" courts,="" parliament,="" and="" in="" all="" federal="" institutions.="" citizens="" have="" the="" right,="" where="" there="" is="" sufficient="" demand,="" to="" receive="" federal="" government="" services="" in="" either="" english="" or="" french="" and="" official-language="" minorities="" are="" guaranteed="" their="" own="" schools="" in="" all="" provinces="" and="" territories.[288]="" the="" 1977="" charter="" of="" the="" french="" language="" established="" french="" as="" the="" official="" language="" of="" quebec.[289]="" although="" more="" than="" 85="" percent="" of="" french-speaking="" canadians="" live="" in="" quebec,="" there="" are="" substantial="" francophone="" populations="" in="" new="" brunswick,="" alberta,="" and="" manitoba;="" has="" the="" largest="" french-speaking="" population="" outside="" quebec.[290]="" new="" brunswick,="" the="" officially="" bilingual="" province,="" has="" a="" french-speaking="" acadian="" minority="" constituting="" 33="" percent="" of="" the="" population.[291]="" there="" are="" also="" clusters="" of="" acadians="" in="" southwestern="" nova="" scotia,="" cape="" breton="" island,="" and="" through="" central="" and="" western="" prince="" edward="" island.[292]="" other="" provinces="" have="" no="" official="" languages="" as="" such,="" but="" french="" is="" used="" as="" a="" language="" of="" instruction,="" in="" courts,="" and="" for="" other="" government="" services,="" in="" addition="" to="" english.="" manitoba,="" and="" quebec="" allow="" for="" both="" english="" and="" french="" to="" be="" spoken="" in="" the="" provincial="" legislatures,="" and="" laws="" are="" enacted="" in="" both="" languages.="" in="" french="" has="" some="" legal="" status,="" but="" is="" not="" fully="" co-official.[293]="" there="" are="" 11="" indigenous="" language="" groups,="" composed="" of="" more="" than="" 65="" distinct="" languages="" and="" dialects.[294]="" of="" these,="" the="" cree,="" inuktitut="" and="" ojibway="" languages="" have="" a="" large="" enough="" population="" of="" fluent="" speakers="" to="" be="" considered="" viable="" to="" survive="" in="" the="" long="" term.[295]="" several="" indigenous="" languages="" have="" official="" status="" in="" the="" northwest="" territories.[296]="" inuktitut="" is="" the="" majority="" language="" in="" nunavut,="" and="" is="" of="" three="" official="" languages="" in="" the="" territory.[297]="" additionally,="" canada="" is="" home="" to="" many="" sign="" languages,="" some="" of="" which="" are="" indigenous.[298]="" american="" sign="" language="" (asl)="" is="" spoken="" across="" the="" country="" due="" to="" the="" prevalence="" of="" asl="" in="" primary="" and="" secondary="" schools.[299]="" due="" to="" its="" historical="" relation="" to="" the="" francophone="" culture,="" quebec="" sign="" language="" (lsq)="" is="" spoken="" primarily="" in="" quebec,="" although="" there="" are="" sizeable="" francophone="" communities="" in="" new="" brunswick,="" and="" manitoba.[300]="" culture="" main="" article:="" culture="" of="" canada="" a="" political="" cartoon="" from="" 1910="" canada's="" early="" european="" multicultural="" identity,="" depicting="" the="" french="" tricolor,="" the="" union="" jack,="" the="" maple="" leaf,="" and="" fleurs-de-lis.="" canada's="" culture="" draws="" influences="" from="" its="" broad="" range="" of="" constituent="" nationalities,="" and="" policies="" that="" promote="" a="" "just="" society"="" are="" constitutionally="" protected.[301][302]="" canada="" has="" placed="" emphasis="" equality="" and="" inclusiveness="" for="" all="" its="" people.[303]="" multiculturalism="" is="" often="" cited="" as="" of="" canada's="" significant="" accomplishments,[304]="" and="" a="" key="" distinguishing="" element="" of="" canadian="" identity.[305][306]="" in="" quebec,="" cultural="" identity="" is="" strong,="" and="" many="" commentators="" speak="" of="" a="" french="" canadian="" culture="" that="" is="" distinct="" from="" english="" canadian="" culture.[307]="" however,="" as="" a="" whole,="" canada="" is,="" in="" theory,="" a="" cultural="" mosaic—a="" collection="" of="" regional="" ethnic="" subcultures.[308]="" canada's="" approach="" to="" governance="" emphasizing="" multiculturalism,="" which="" is="" based="" selective="" immigration,="" social="" integration,="" and="" suppression="" of="" far-right="" politics,="" has="" wide="" public="" support.[309]="" government="" policies="" such="" as="" publicly="" funded="" health="" care,="" higher="" taxation="" to="" redistribute="" wealth,="" the="" outlawing="" of="" capital="" punishment,="" strong="" efforts="" to="" eliminate="" poverty,="" strict="" gun="" control,="" the="" legalization="" of="" same-sex="" marriage="" and="" cannabis="" are="" further="" social="" indicators="" of="" canada's="" political="" and="" cultural="" values.[310][311]="" canadians="" also="" identify="" with="" the="" country's="" foreign="" aid="" policies,="" peacekeeping="" roles,="" the="" national="" park="" system="" and="" the="" canadian="" charter="" of="" rights="" and="" freedoms.[305][312]="" bill="" reid's="" 1980="" sculpture="" raven="" and="" the="" first="" men.="" raven="" crushing="" men="" under="" turtle="" shell="" bill="" reid's="" 1980="" sculpture="" raven="" and="" the="" first="" men;="" the="" raven="" is="" a="" figure="" common="" to="" many="" of="" canada's="" indigenous="" mythologies="" historically,="" canada="" has="" been="" influenced="" by="" british,="" french,="" and="" indigenous="" cultures="" and="" traditions.="" through="" their="" language,="" art="" and="" music,="" indigenous="" peoples="" continue="" to="" influence="" the="" canadian="" identity.[313]="" during="" the="" 20th="" century,="" canadians="" with="" african,="" caribbean="" and="" asian="" nationalities="" have="" added="" to="" the="" canadian="" identity="" and="" its="" culture.[314]="" canadian="" humour="" is="" an="" integral="" part="" of="" the="" canadian="" identity="" and="" is="" reflected="" in="" its="" folklore,="" literature,="" music,="" art,="" and="" media.="" the="" primary="" characteristics="" of="" canadian="" humour="" are="" irony,="" parody,="" and="" satire.[315]="" many="" canadian="" comedians="" have="" achieved="" international="" success="" in="" the="" american="" tv="" and="" film="" industries="" and="" are="" amongst="" the="" most="" recognized="" in="" the="" world.[316]="" canada="" has="" a="" well-developed="" media="" sector,="" but="" its="" cultural="" output;="" particularly="" in="" english="" films,="" television="" shows,="" and="" magazines,="" is="" often="" overshadowed="" by="" imports="" from="" the="" united="" states.[317]="" as="" a="" result,="" the="" preservation="" of="" a="" distinctly="" canadian="" culture="" is="" supported="" by="" federal="" government="" programs,="" laws,="" and="" institutions="" such="" as="" the="" canadian="" broadcasting="" corporation="" (cbc),="" the="" national="" film="" board="" of="" canada="" (nfb),="" and="" the="" canadian="" radio-television="" and="" telecommunications="" commission="" (crtc).[318]="" symbols="" main="" article:="" national="" symbols="" of="" canada="" the="" mother="" beaver="" sculpture="" outside="" the="" house="" of="" commons="" the="" mother="" beaver="" the="" canadian="" parliament's="" peace="" tower[319]="" the="" five="" flowers="" the="" shield="" each="" represent="" an="" ethnicity:="" tudor="" rose:="" english;="" fleur="" de="" lis:="" french;="" thistle:="" scottish;="" shamrock:="" irish;="" and="" leek:="" welsh.="" canada's="" national="" symbols="" are="" influenced="" by="" natural,="" historical,="" and="" indigenous="" sources.="" the="" use="" of="" the="" maple="" leaf="" as="" a="" canadian="" symbol="" dates="" to="" the="" early="" 18th="" century.="" the="" maple="" leaf="" is="" depicted="" canada's="" current="" and="" previous="" flags,="" and="" the="" arms="" of="" canada.[320]="" the="" arms="" of="" canada="" are="" closely="" modelled="" after="" the="" royal="" coat="" of="" arms="" of="" the="" united="" kingdom="" with="" french="" and="" distinctive="" canadian="" elements="" replacing="" or="" added="" to="" those="" derived="" from="" the="" british="" version.[321]="" the="" great="" seal="" of="" canada="" is="" a="" governmental="" seal="" used="" for="" purposes="" of="" state,="" being="" set="" letters="" patent,="" proclamations="" and="" commissions,="" for="" representatives="" of="" the="" queen="" and="" for="" the="" appointment="" of="" cabinet="" ministers,="" lieutenant="" governors,="" senators,="" and="" judges.[322][323]="" other="" prominent="" symbols="" include="" the="" beaver,="" canada="" goose,="" and="" common="" loon,="" the="" crown,="" the="" royal="" canadian="" mounted="" police,[320]="" and="" more="" recently="" the="" totem="" pole="" and="" inuksuk.[324]="" canadian="" coins="" feature="" many="" of="" these="" symbols:="" the="" loon="" the="" $1="" coin,="" the="" arms="" of="" canada="" the="" 50¢="" piece,="" the="" beaver="" the="" nickel.[325]="" the="" penny,="" removed="" from="" circulation="" in="" 2013,="" featured="" the="" maple="" leaf.[326]="" the="" queen'="" s="" image="" appears="" $20="" bank="" notes,="" and="" the="" obverse="" of="" all="" current="" canadian="" coins.[325]="" literature="" main="" article:="" canadian="" literature="" canadian="" literature="" is="" often="" divided="" into="" french-="" and="" english-language="" literatures,="" which="" are="" rooted="" in="" the="" literary="" traditions="" of="" france="" and="" britain,="" respectively.[327]="" there="" are="" four="" major="" themes="" that="" can="" be="" found="" within="" historical="" canadian="" literature;="" nature,="" frontier="" life,="" canada's="" position="" within="" the="" world,="" all="" three="" of="" which="" tie="" into="" the="" garrison="" mentality.[328]="" by="" the="" 1990s,="" canadian="" literature="" was="" viewed="" as="" some="" of="" the="" world's="" best.[329]="" canada's="" ethnic="" and="" cultural="" diversity="" are="" reflected="" in="" its="" literature,="" with="" many="" of="" its="" most="" prominent="" modern="" writers="" focusing="" ethnic="" life.[330]="" arguably,="" the="" best-known="" living="" canadian="" writer="" internationally="" (especially="" since="" the="" deaths="" of="" robertson="" davies="" and="" mordecai="" richler)="" is="" margaret="" atwood,="" a="" prolific="" novelist,="" poet,="" and="" literary="" critic.[331]="" numerous="" other="" canadian="" authors="" have="" accumulated="" international="" literary="" awards;[332]="" including="" nobel="" laureate="" alice="" munro,="" who="" has="" been="" called="" the="" best="" living="" writer="" of="" short="" stories="" in="" english;[333]="" and="" booker="" prize="" recipient="" michael="" who="" is="" perhaps="" best="" known="" for="" the="" novel="" the="" english="" patient,="" which="" was="" adapted="" as="" a="" film="" of="" the="" same="" name="" that="" won="" the="" academy="" award="" for="" best="" picture.[334]="" visual="" arts="" main="" article:="" canadian="" art="" oil="" canvas="" painting="" of="" a="" tree="" dominating="" its="" rocky="" landscape="" during="" a="" sunset="" the="" jack="" pine="" by="" tom="" thomson.="" oil="" canvas,="" 1916,="" in="" the="" collection="" of="" the="" national="" gallery="" of="" canada="" canadian="" visual="" art="" has="" been="" dominated="" by="" figures="" such="" as="" tom="" thomson="" –="" the="" country's="" most="" famous="" painter="" –="" and="" by="" the="" group="" of="" seven.[335]="" thomson's="" career="" painting="" canadian="" landscapes="" spanned="" a="" decade="" up="" to="" his="" death="" in="" 1917="" at="" age="" 39.[336]="" the="" group="" were="" painters="" with="" a="" nationalistic="" and="" idealistic="" focus,="" who="" first="" exhibited="" their="" distinctive="" works="" in="" may="" 1920.="" though="" referred="" to="" as="" having="" seven="" members,="" five="" artists—lawren="" harris,="" a.="" y.="" jackson,="" arthur="" lismer,="" j.="" e.="" h.="" macdonald,="" and="" frederick="" varley—were="" responsible="" for="" articulating="" the="" group's="" ideas.="" they="" were="" joined="" briefly="" by="" frank="" johnston,="" and="" by="" commercial="" artist="" franklin="" carmichael.="" a.="" j.="" casson="" became="" part="" of="" the="" group="" in="" 1926.[337]="" associated="" with="" the="" group="" was="" another="" prominent="" canadian="" artist,="" emily="" carr,="" known="" for="" her="" landscapes="" and="" portrayals="" of="" the="" indigenous="" peoples="" of="" the="" pacific="" northwest="" coast.[338]="" since="" the="" 1950s,="" works="" of="" inuit="" art="" have="" been="" given="" as="" gifts="" to="" foreign="" dignitaries="" by="" the="" canadian="" government.[339]="" music="" main="" article:="" music="" of="" canada="" the="" canadian="" music="" industry="" is="" the="" sixth-largest="" in="" the="" world="" producing="" internationally="" renowned="" composers,="" musicians="" and="" ensembles.[340]="" music="" broadcasting="" in="" the="" country="" is="" regulated="" by="" the="" crtc.[341]="" the="" canadian="" academy="" of="" recording="" arts="" and="" sciences="" presents="" canada's="" music="" industry="" awards,="" the="" juno="" awards,="" which="" were="" first="" awarded="" in="" 1970.[342]="" the="" canadian="" music="" hall="" of="" fame="" established="" in="" 1976="" honours="" canadian="" musicians="" for="" their="" lifetime="" achievements.[343]="" patriotic="" music="" in="" canada="" dates="" back="" over="" 200="" years="" as="" a="" distinct="" category="" from="" british="" patriotism,="" preceding="" the="" first="" legal="" steps="" to="" independence="" by="" over="" 50="" years.="" the="" earliest,="" the="" bold="" canadian,="" was="" written="" in="" 1812.[344]="" the="" national="" anthem="" of="" canada,="" "o="" canada",="" was="" originally="" commissioned="" by="" the="" lieutenant="" governor="" of="" quebec,="" the="" honourable="" théodore="" robitaille,="" for="" the="" 1880="" st.="" jean-baptiste="" day="" ceremony,="" and="" was="" officially="" adopted="" in="" 1980.[345]="" calixa="" lavallée="" wrote="" the="" music,="" which="" was="" a="" setting="" of="" a="" patriotic="" poem="" composed="" by="" the="" poet="" and="" judge="" sir="" adolphe-basile="" routhier.="" the="" text="" was="" originally="" in="" french="" before="" it="" was="" adapted="" into="" english="" in="" 1906.[346]="" sport="" main="" articles:="" sports="" in="" canada="" and="" history="" of="" canadian="" sports="" hockey="" players="" and="" fans="" celebrating="" canada's="" ice="" hockey="" victory="" at="" the="" 2010="" winter="" olympics="" in="" vancouver="" the="" roots="" of="" organized="" sports="" in="" canada="" date="" back="" to="" the="" 1770s.[347]="" canada's="" official="" national="" sports="" are="" ice="" hockey="" and="" lacrosse.[348]="" golf,="" tennis,="" skiing,="" badminton,="" volleyball,="" cycling,="" swimming,="" bowling,="" rugby="" union,="" canoeing,="" equestrian,="" squash="" and="" the="" study="" of="" martial="" arts="" are="" widely="" enjoyed="" at="" the="" youth="" and="" amateur="" levels.[349]="" canada="" shares="" several="" major="" professional="" sports="" leagues="" with="" the="" united="" states.[350]="" canadian="" teams="" in="" these="" leagues="" include="" seven="" franchises="" in="" the="" national="" hockey="" league,="" as="" well="" as="" three="" major="" league="" soccer="" teams="" and="" team="" in="" each="" of="" major="" league="" baseball="" and="" the="" national="" basketball="" association.="" other="" popular="" professional="" sports="" in="" canada="" include="" canadian="" football,="" which="" is="" played="" in="" the="" canadian="" football="" league,="" national="" lacrosse="" league="" lacrosse,="" and="" curling.[351]="" canada="" has="" participated="" in="" almost="" every="" olympic="" games="" since="" its="" olympic="" debut="" in="" 1900,[352]="" and="" has="" hosted="" several="" high-profile="" international="" sporting="" events,="" including="" the="" 1976="" summer="" olympics,[353]="" the="" 1988="" winter="" olympics,[354]="" the="" 1994="" basketball="" world="" championship,[355]="" the="" 2007="" fifa="" u-20="" world="" cup,[356]="" the="" 2010="" winter="" olympics[357][358]="" and="" the="" 2015="" fifa="" women's="" world="" cup.[359]="" most="" recently,="" canada="" staged="" the="" 2015="" pan="" american="" games="" and="" 2015="" parapan="" american="" games.[360]="" see="" also="" flagcanada="" portal="" flagnew="" france="" portal="" iconnorth="" america="" portal="" index="" of="" canada-related="" articles="" outline="" of="" canada="" topics="" by="" provinces="" and="" territories="" canada="" –="" wikipedia="" book="" notes="" includes="" general="" responses="" indicating="" north="" american="" origins="" (e.g.,="" 'north="" american')="" as="" well="" as="" more="" specific="" responses="" indicating="" north="" american="" origins="" that="" have="" not="" been="" included="" elsewhere="" (e.g.,="" 'maritimer'="" or="" 'quebecois').="" all="" citizens="" of="" canada="" are="" classified="" as="" "canadians"="" as="" defined="" by="" canada's="" nationality="" laws.="" however,="" "canadian"="" as="" an="" ethnic="" group="" has="" since="" 1996="" been="" added="" to="" census="" questionnaires="" for="" possible="" ancestry.="" "canadian"="" was="" included="" as="" an="" example="" the="" english="" questionnaire="" and="" "canadien"="" as="" an="" 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encyclopedia.="" isbn="" 978-0-7710-2099-5.="" history="" careless,="" j.="" m.="" s.="" (2012).="" canada:="" a="" story="" of="" challenge="" (revised="" ed.).="" cambridge="" university="" press.="" isbn="" 978-1-107-67581-0.="" francis,="" rd;="" jones,="" richard;="" smith,="" donald="" b="" (2009).="" journeys:="" a="" history="" of="" canada.="" nelson="" education.="" isbn="" 978-0-17-644244-6.="" taylor,="" martin="" brook;="" owram,="" doug="" (1994).="" canadian="" history.="" 1="" &="" 2.="" university="" of="" toronto="" press.="" isbn="" 978-0-8020-5016-8,="" isbn="" 978-0-8020-2801-3="" geography="" and="" climate="" rumney,="" thomas="" a.="" (2009).="" canadian="" geography:="" a="" scholarly="" bibliography.="" plattsburgh="" state="" university.="" isbn="" 978-0-8108-6718-5.="" stanford,="" quentin="" h,="" ed.="" (2008).="" canadian="" oxford="" world="" atlas="" (6th="" ed.).="" oxford="" university="" press="" (canada).="" isbn="" 978-0-19-542928-2.="" government="" and="" law="" jacob,="" joseph="" w.="" (2007).="" canadian="" charter="" of="" rights="" and="" freedoms:="" democracy="" for="" the="" people="" and="" for="" each="" person.="" trafford="" publishing.="" isbn="" 978-1-4269-8016-9.="" malcolmson,="" patrick;="" myers,="" richard="" (2009).="" the="" canadian="" regime:="" an="" introduction="" to="" parliamentary="" government="" in="" canada="" (4th="" ed.).="" university="" of="" toronto="" press.="" isbn="" 978-1-4426-0047-8.="" morton,="" frederick="" lee="" (2002).="" law,="" politics,="" and="" the="" judicial="" process="" in="" canada.="" frederick="" lee.="" isbn="" 978-1-55238-046-8.="" social="" welfare="" finkel,="" alvin="" (2006).="" social="" policy="" and="" practice="" in="" canada:="" a="" history.="" wilfrid="" laurier="" university="" press.="" isbn="" 978-0-88920-475-1.="" thompson,="" valerie="" d.="" (2015).="" health="" and="" health="" care="" delivery="" in="" canada.="" elsevier="" health="" sciences.="" isbn="" 978-1-927406-31-1.="" burke,="" sara="" z.;="" milewski,="" patrice="" (2011).="" schooling="" in="" transition:="" readings="" in="" canadian="" history="" of="" education.="" university="" of="" toronto="" press.="" isbn="" 978-0-8020-9577-0.="" foreign="" relations="" and="" military="" james,="" patrick;="" michaud,="" nelson;="" o'reilly,="" marc="" j.="" (2006).="" handbook="" of="" canadian="" foreign="" policy.="" lexington="" books.="" isbn="" 978-0-7391-1493-3.="" conrad,="" john="" (2011).="" scarce="" heard="" amid="" the="" guns:="" an="" inside="" look="" at="" canadian="" peacekeeping.="" dundurn.="" isbn="" 978-1-55488-981-5.="" granatstein,="" j.="" l.="" (2011).="" canada's="" army:="" waging="" war="" and="" keeping="" the="" peace="" (2nd="" ed.).="" university="" of="" toronto="" press.="" isbn="" 978-1-4426-1178-8.="" economy="" easterbrook,="" w.t.;="" aitken,="" hugh="" g.="" j.="" (2015).="" canadian="" economic="" history.="" university="" of="" toronto="" press,="" scholarly="" publishing="" division.="" isbn="" 978-1-4426-5814-1.="" economic="" survey="" of="" canada="" 2016.="" oecd="" economic="" surveys.="" 2016.="" –="" (previous="" surveys)="" council="" of="" canadian="" academies="" (2012).="" the="" state="" of="" science="" and="" technology="" in="" canada,="" 2012.="" council="" of="" canadian="" academies.="" isbn="" 978-1-926558-47-9.="" demography="" and="" statistics="" statistics="" canada="" (2008).="" canada="" year="" book="" (cyb)="" annual="" 1867–1967.="" federal="" publications="" (queen="" of="" canada).="" carment,="" david;="" bercuson,="" david="" (2008).="" the="" world="" in="" canada:="" diaspora,="" demography,="" and="" domestic="" politics.="" mqup.="" isbn="" 978-0-7735-7854-8.="" statistics="" canada="" (december="" 2012).="" canada="" year="" book.="" federal="" publications="" (queen="" of="" canada).="" issn="" 0068-8142.="" catalogue="" no="" 11-402-xwe.="" culture="" cohen,="" andrew="" (2007).="" the="" unfinished="" canadian:="" the="" people="" we="" are.="" mcclelland="" &="" stewart.="" isbn="" 978-0-7710-2181-7.="" magocsi,="" paul="" r="" (1999).="" encyclopedia="" of="" canada's="" peoples.="" society="" of="" university="" of="" toronto="" press.="" isbn="" 978-0-8020-2938-6.="" vance,="" jonathan="" f.="" (2011).="" a="" history="" of="" canadian="" culture.="" oxford="" university="" press.="" isbn="" 978-0-19-544422-3.="" indigenous="" peoples="" dickason,="" olive="" patricia;="" mcnab,="" david="" t.="" (2009).="" canada's="" first="" nations:="" a="" history="" of="" founding="" peoples="" from="" earliest="" times="" (4th="" ed.).="" toronto,="" canada:="" oxford="" university="" press.="" isbn="" 978-0-19-542892-6.="" ladner,="" kiera="" l.;="" tait,="" myra,="" eds.="" (2017).="" surviving="" canada:="" indigenous="" peoples="" celebrate="" 150="" years="" of="" betrayal.="" winnipeg,="" manitoba:="" arp="" books.="" isbn="" 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    .އަތްޖެހުމަށްޓަކައި، އެވެސް ބުރުލެއް ނާރާނެތީ ޖިންނީގެ ދެ ލޯ ބައެއް ފަހަރަށް ދާސިއާއާ އެއްވެސް ހިފެހެއްޓުމެއް ނެތި ހަމަކޮށްލެވޭ ގޮތް ވެއެވެ. އެއްވެސް ފަހަރެއްގައި ދިރިއުޅުމުގެ ކަމެއްގައި އަށްދިއްޔޯތް ބުނުމަކީ ޖިންނި ވިސްނާ ކަމެއް ނޫނެވެ. ބައެއް ފަހަރަށް ޖިންނިއަށް އަރިދަފުސް ރޯގާ ވައްތަރު ކުރެއެވެ. ޖިންނި ސަބަބަކަށް ދެކެނީ ޖިންނީގެ ބައްޕެގެ ބައެއް ނަސޭހަތްތަކުގައި ރަގަޅަށް ނިހިފެހެއްޓެނީ ކަމެވެ. ނަމަވެސް މިފަދަ ލަނޑެއް ދިނުމުގެ ކުރިމަގު ދާސިއާއަށް، ޖިންނިއަށް ކޮށާ ނުދެވޭނެ ކަން ޖިންނި ޤަބޫލުކުރެއެވެ. ދާސިއާ ރޮށްވާލައިގެން ނަމަވެސް ޖިންނީގެ ނިޔަފަތިތަކުގެ ސިކާރައަކަށް ދާސިއާ ހަދާނެ ބާވައެވެ؟ އޮމާންކޮށް ދިރިއުޅުމުގެ ދުވަސްތައް މި ޖިންނި ދާސިއާއެކު ދުއްވާލަން ބޭނުން ނުވަނީ ކީތްވެ ބާވައެވެ؟ ދޭތެރެއެއް ރަގަޅު ދަނޑިވަޅެއް ބަލާފައި މި ޖިންނިއަށް އިންސާނަކު ލަނޑެއް ދީފާނެ ބާވައެވެ؟ އެވަރު މި ޖިންނި ހުންނާނީ ވިސްނައިގެންނެވެ. ޔަޤީނުން ވެސް ޖިންނި މިކަމުގައި އަނދަގޮޑި ޖެހެންޏާ މިކަމުގެ އުނދަގޫ ދާސިއަށް ފޯރާނެ ކަން ޖިންނިއަށް އެނގެއެވެ. ސަމާސާ ގޮތްގަނޑަކީ ޖިންނި މިކަމުގައި ބޭނުންވާ ގޮތްގަނޑެއް ނޫނެވެ. އަދި ސީދަލަށް ހުރުމަށްވެސް ޖިންނި ބޭނުމެއް ނުވެއެވެ. ޖިންނި ވާހަކަދެއްކީ ބިރުވެރި ކަމެއް އިތުރަށް އަބީރާހުއަށް ދައްކާލުމަށް ހިތުގައި ގަދަކޮށް ފަވާލައިގެން ހުރެއެވެ. ޕަސްލާފައި އަބީރާހުގެ ގައިގާ އެތިފަހަރެއް ޖަހަފިނަ އިތުރަށް އަބީރާހު ހަނދާން ހުރެފާނެ ކަމަށް ޖިންނި ވިސްނިއެވެ. އެ އެތިފަހަރު އަބީރާހުގެ ގައިގާ ޖެހުމުގައި އިތުރު ރޭވުމަކަށް ޖިންނި ބޭނުމެއް ނުވެއެވެ. އޮމާން ކަމަކަށް ކުރަކި ކަމަކަށް ވެސް ޖިންނި ބޭނުމެއް ނުވެއެވެ. ޖިންނިއަށް އޮންނަ ޔަޤީކަން ބޮޑުކަމުން ނަތީޖާ ނުކުންނާނީ ރަގަޅަށް ކަން ޖިންނިއަށް އެނގެއެވެ. އެއްވެސް ހާލެއްގައި ރަށްކާވުމުގެ ގޮތުން އަބީރާހުއަށް ކަންތައް ނުކުރެވޭނެތީ އަބީރާހުގެ ލޯބި ކާމިޔާބު ކުރުމުގެ ކުރިން އެތަކެއް އެތިފަހަރެއް އަބީރާހުގެ ބޮލައް އަރާނެކަން ޖިންނިއަށް އެނގެއެވެ. މި ފަދަ އެތިފަހަރުތަކުގެ ސަބަބުން އަބީރާހުގެ ރޮޔުން ޖިންނި ދެކެން ބޭނުންވެއެވެ. އިންތިހާދަރަޖައިގެ ރުޅިވެރިކަމަކީވެސް އަބީރާހުގެ ފަރާތުން ކުރިމަތިލާން ބޭނުންވަނީ ދެން ދާސިއާ ހަދާގޮތެއް ބަލާލުމަށް ޓަކައެވެ. ދެން ޖިންނި ކަންތައްކުރަން ބޭނުންވަނީ ލޭކޯރުތަކެއް އަބީރާހުގެ ހަށިގަނޑުން ދައްކާލާ ގޮތަށެވެ. އެއްވެސް ޖެހިލުމެއް ނެތިއެވެ. އަދަބުވެރިކަން ހިތުން ފުހެލައިގެން ހުރެ ފިޔަވަޅަކަށް ފަހު ފިޔަވަޅެއް އަޅާގޮތަށެވެ. ލޯބި ވުމުގެ ފަލްސަފާގެ ތެރެއަށް އަބީރާހު ގެންދެވޭ ގޮތަށެވެ. ލޯބިން ދެއްކެވޭ ވާހަކައިން ވެސް ބިރުދައްކާލުމުގެ ގޮތުން އަބީރާހުގެ ހިތުގައިވާ ޔަޤީންކަމަށް ބަދަލުތަކެއް ގެނައުމަށްޓަކައެވެ. ****** 2 "ރަގަޅީ އަދި އެހަށް މަޑުކުރިއްޔާ. ޖިންނި އަހަރެންނާއި ސާހުގެ ފަރާތުން ފައިދާއަކަށް ބޭނުންވާއިރު އަހަރެމެންގެ ބޭނުންތައް ވެސް ޙާސިލް ވާނެޖެހޭނެ. އަހަރެމެންގެ މުސްތަގުބަލު އުޖާލާ ކުރުމަށް ވިސްނަން. ލޯބީގެ ހަރުފަތްތައް އަހަރެމެން ގިރާކުރާނީ ހަރުފަތަކަށް ފަހު ހަރުފަތެއް. މީހުންނަށް އަދަބުވެރި ވުމާއި ކަމޭހިތުން އެއީ އަހަރެމެންގެ ސިކުނޑީގައި ބިންވަޅު ނެގިފައި ހުންނަ ކަންތައްތައް. އިންތިހާ ދަރަޖައީގެ ދެކޮޅުވެރި ކަމަކީ އަހަރެމެންގެ ސިކުނޑިން ފުހެލާފައިވާ ކަންކަން." ފާއިޒާ، ޖިންނިއަށް ބުނެލިއެވެ. "ތި ކަމުގަ އެއްވެސް ފަރުވާލެއް ނޯންނާނެ." ޖިންނި ޔަޤީންކަން ދިނެވެ. އޮމާންކަމާއިއެކު ވާހަކަނުދައްކައި ހުންނަން ހުރެފައި އިތުރުގޮތެއް ނެތިގެންނެވެ. ނަމަވެސް ޔަޤީންކަން އިތުރުކުރަން އުޅެފައި އަބީރާހުއާ އިދިކޮޅަށް ބުނަންހުރި ވާހަކަތައް ނުބުނެ މަޑުޖައްސާލީ ވަގުތުގެ ގޮތުން އެ ވާހަކައަށް އެ މާޙައުލު ނުފެތޭތީއެވެ. މަހެފޫޒާއަށް ދެން އައި ވަގުތުގައި ނުރަގަޅު އަށްޔެއް މާނަފުން ގޮތަކަށް ފޮނުވާލީ މަހެފޫޒާ ގައިން ހީބިހި ނަގައިގެން ދާފަދަ ގޮތަކަށެވެ. ފައިދާވާނެ މިފަދަ ކިތައްމެ ގޮތެއް ޖިންނިއަށް ވިސްނެނީ ޖިންނީގެ ނުލާފާކަން އިތުރަށް ލޯބީގެ ދަޅަ ބޭނުންކޮށްގެން މަހެފޫޒާއަށް ދައްކާލަން ރަގަޅުވާނެ ކަމަށް ވަރަށް ގިނަ ހުވަފެންތަކުން ޖިންނިއަށް ފެންނާތީއެވެ. ބައެއްފަހަރަށް މަހެފޫޒާ ފެންނަވަގުތު ލޯބީގެ ހިޔާލުތައް ކުރެވުމުން އިންތިހާއަށް މަހެފޫޒާއަށް ބިރުވެރި ގޯނާއެއް ކުރުމަށް ޖިންނީގެ ހިތައް އަރެއެވެ. ސަމާސާ ކަންތައް ކުރުމަކީވެސް ޖިންނީގެ ހަށީގައި ހިފާފާ ހުންނަ ކަމެއް ކަމުން މަހެފޫޒާގެ އަދަބު އިޙުތިރާމު ކުރުމުގެ ފެންވަރު ދައްކުރުމަށްޓަކައި އެހެން މީހުންނާ މަހެފޫޒާ ކައިރިވާ ވަގުތު، ރޭތަކުގައި ތަރިތަކުގެ ވިދުން ފެންނަ ފަދައިން މަހެފޫޒާގެ ދެ ލޮލުން ކަރުނަ ގެނެސް ރޮށްވާ އެ ކަރުނާގެ ވިދުން އެހެން މީހުންނަށް ދައްކާލުމަކީ ޖިންނި ވިސްނާ ކަމެކެވެ. އެއްވެސް އަދަބެއް ސަދަބެއްނެތި އާކިފައްވެސް ބިރުވެރިކަން ދައްކާލުން އެއީ ޖިންނީގެ މަގުސަދުތައް ޙާސިލުކުރުމަށްޓަކައި އަދި މަހެ ފޫޒާގެ ލޯބި މާނަފުން ގޮތަކަށް ކާމިޔާބު ކުރުމަށްޓަކައި
                                                                                                                                                Czech Republic
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Czech Republic Česká republika (Czech) Flag of the Czech Republic Flag {{{coat_alt}}} Greater coat of arms Motto: "Pravda vítězí" (Czech) "Truth prevails" Anthem: Kde domov můj (Czech) Where is my home Menu 0:00 Location of the Czech Republic (dark green) – in Europe (green & dark grey) – in the European Union (green) – [Legend] Location of the Czech Republic (dark green) – in Europe (green & dark grey) – in the European Union (green) – [Legend] Capital and largest city Prague 50°05′N 14°28′E Official language Czech[1] Officially recognised languages[2][3] List [show] Ethnic groups (2016[4][5]) 64.3% Czechs 25.3% unspecified 5.0% Moravians 1.4% Slovaks 1.0% Ukrainians 3.0% other Religion (2011)[6] 44.7% undeclared 34.5% non-religious 10.5% Catholic 2.1% other Christians 0.7% other religions Demonym Czech Government Unitary parliamentary constitutional republic • President Miloš Zeman • Prime Minister Andrej Babiš Legislature Parliament • Upper house Senate • Lower house Chamber of Deputies Establishment history • Duchy of Bohemia c. 870 • Kingdom of Bohemia 1198 • Czechoslovakia (Independence from Austria-Hungary) 28 October 1918 • Federalization of Czechoslovakia (Czech Socialist Republic) 1 January 1969 • Czech Republic became independent 1 January 1993 • Joined the European Union 1 May 2004 Area • Total 78,866 km2 (30,450 sq mi) (115th) • Water (%) 2 Population • 2016 estimate 10,610,947 Increase[7] (84th) • 2011 census 10,436,560[8] • Density 134/km2 (347.1/sq mi) (87th) GDP (PPP) 2018 estimate • Total $368.659 billion[9] (50th) • Per capita $36,784[9] (39th) GDP (nominal) 2018 estimate • Total $237.997 billion[9] (49th) • Per capita $22,468[9] (41st) Gini (2015) Positive decrease 25.0[10] low · 5th HDI (2017) Increase 0.888[11] very high · 27th Currency Czech koruna (CZK) Time zone UTC+1 (CET) • Summer (DST) UTC+2 (CEST) Driving side right Calling code +420b Patron saint St. Wenceslaus ISO 3166 code CZ Internet TLD .czc The question is rhetorical, implying "those places where my homeland lies". Code 42 was shared with Slovakia until 1997. Also .eu, shared with other European Union member states. The Czech Republic (/ˈtʃɛk -/ (About this soundlisten);[12] Czech: Česká republika [ˈtʃɛskaː ˈrɛpublɪka] (About this soundlisten)),[13] also known by its short-form name, Czechia[14] (/ˈtʃɛkiə/ (About this soundlisten); Czech: Česko [ˈtʃɛsko] (About this soundlisten)), is a landlocked country in Central Europe bordered by Germany to the west, Austria to the south, Slovakia to the east and Poland to the northeast.[15] The Czech Republic covers an area of 78,866 square kilometres (30,450 sq mi) with a mostly temperate continental climate and oceanic climate. It is a unitary parliamentary republic, with 10.6 million inhabitants; its capital and largest city is Prague, with 1.3 million residents. Other major cities are Brno, Ostrava and Pilsen. The Czech Republic is a member of the European Union (EU), NATO, the OECD, the United Nations, the OSCE, and the Council of Europe. It is a developed country[16] with an advanced,[17] high income[18] export-oriented social market economy based in services, manufacturing and innovation. The UNDP ranks the country 14th in inequality-adjusted human development.[19] The Czech Republic is a welfare state with a "continental" European social model, a universal health care system, tuition-free university education and is ranked 14th in the Human Capital Index.[20] It ranks as the 6th safest or most peaceful country and is one of the most non-religious countries in the world,[21] while achieving strong performance in democratic governance. The Czech Republic includes the historical territories of Bohemia,[22] Moravia, and Czech Silesia. The Czech state was formed in the late 9th century as the Duchy of Bohemia under the Great Moravian Empire. After the fall of the Empire in 907, the centre of power transferred from Moravia to Bohemia under the Přemyslid dynasty. In 1002, the duchy was formally recognized as part of the Holy Roman Empire,[23][24] becoming the Kingdom of Bohemia in 1198 and reaching its greatest territorial extent in the 14th century. Besides Bohemia itself, the king of Bohemia ruled the lands of the Bohemian Crown, he had a vote in the election of the Holy Roman Emperor, and Prague was the imperial seat in periods between the 14th and 17th century. In the Hussite Wars of the 15th century driven by the Protestant Bohemian Reformation, the kingdom faced economic embargoes and defeated five consecutive crusades proclaimed by the leaders of the Catholic Church. Following the Battle of Mohács in 1526, the whole Crown of Bohemia was gradually integrated into the Habsburg Monarchy alongside the Archduchy of Austria and the Kingdom of Hungary. The Protestant Bohemian Revolt (1618–20) against the Catholic Habsburgs led to the Thirty Years' War. After the Battle of the White Mountain, the Habsburgs consolidated their rule, eradicated Protestantism and reimposed Catholicism, and also adopted a policy of gradual Germanization. This contributed to the anti-Habsburg sentiment. A long history of resentment of the Catholic Church followed[25][26] and still continues.[27][28] With the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, the Bohemian Kingdom became part of the Austrian Empire and the Czech language experienced a revival as a consequence of widespread romantic nationalism. In the 19th century, the Czech lands became the industrial powerhouse of the monarchy and were subsequently the core of the Republic of Czechoslovakia, which was formed in 1918 following the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian Empire after World War I. Czechoslovakia remained the only democracy in this part of Europe in the interwar period.[29] However, the Czech part of Czechoslovakia was occupied by Germany in World War II, while the Slovak region became the Slovak Republic; Czechoslovakia was liberated in 1945 by the armies of the Soviet Union and the United States. The Czech country lost the majority of its German-speaking inhabitants after they were expelled following the war. The Communist Party of Czechoslovakia won the 1946 elections and after the 1948 coup d'état, Czechoslovakia became a one-party communist state under Soviet influence. In 1968, increasing dissatisfaction with the regime culminated in a reform movement known as the Prague Spring, which ended in a Soviet-led invasion. Czechoslovakia remained occupied until the 1989 Velvet Revolution, when the communist regime collapsed and market economy was reintroduced. On 1 January 1993, Czechoslovakia peacefully dissolved, with its constituent states becoming the independent states of the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The Czech Republic joined NATO in 1999 and the EU in 2004. Contents 1 Name 2 History 2.1 Prehistory 2.2 Bohemia 2.3 Czechoslovakia 2.4 Velvet Revolution and the European Union 3 Geography 3.1 Climate 3.2 Environment 4 Government and politics 4.1 Law 4.2 Foreign relations 4.3 Military 4.4 Administrative divisions 5 Economy 5.1 Industry 5.2 Energy 5.3 Transportation infrastructure 5.4 Communications and IT 5.5 Science and philosophy 5.5.1 Humanities 5.5.2 Science and technology 5.6 Tourism 6 Demographics 6.1 Urbanisation 6.2 Religion 6.3 Education 6.4 Health 7 Culture 7.1 Art 7.2 Architecture 7.3 Literature 7.4 Music 7.5 Theatre 7.6 Film 7.7 Media 7.8 Video games 7.9 Cuisine 7.10 Sports 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links Name Main article: Name of the Czech Republic Historical affiliations Samo's Empire 631–658 Great Moravia 830s–907 Duchy of Bohemia 880s–1198 Kingdom of Bohemia 1198–1918 Margraviate of Moravia 1182–1918 Duchies of Silesia 1335–1742, and as Austrian Silesia 1742-1918 Lands of the Bohemian Crown 1348–1918 Holy Roman Empire part of the Holy Roman Empire 1002–1806 part of the Austrian Empire 1804–1867 part of Austria-Hungary 1867–1918 Czechoslovakia 1918–1939 Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (protectorate of Nazi Germany) 1939–1945 Czechoslovakia 1945–1992 Czech Republic 1993–present The traditional English name "Bohemia" derives from Latin "Boiohaemum", which means "home of the Boii". The current English name comes from the Polish ethnonym associated with the area, which ultimately comes from the Czech word Čech.[30][31][32] The name comes from the Slavic tribe (Czech: Češi, Čechové) and, according to legend, their leader Čech, who brought them to Bohemia, to settle on Říp Mountain. The etymology of the word Čech can be traced back to the Proto-Slavic root *čel-, meaning "member of the people; kinsman", thus making it cognate to the Czech word člověk (a person).[33] The country has been traditionally divided into three lands, namely Bohemia (Čechy) in the west, Moravia (Morava) in the east, and Czech Silesia (Slezsko; the smaller, south-eastern part of historical Silesia, most of which is located within modern Poland) in the northeast. Known as the lands of the Bohemian Crown since the 14th century, a number of other names for the country have been used, including Czech/Bohemian lands, Bohemian Crown, Czechia [34] and the lands of the Crown of Saint Wenceslas. When the country regained its independence after the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian empire in 1918, the new name of Czechoslovakia was coined to reflect the union of the Czech and Slovak nations within the one country. After Czechoslovakia dissolved in 1992, the Czech part lacked a common English short name. The Czech Ministry of Foreign Affairs recommended the English name Czechia in 1993, and the Czech government approved Czechia as the official short name in 2016. History Main article: History of the Czech lands Prehistory Stone sculpture Map Left: Venus of Dolní Věstonice is the oldest ceramic article in the world, dated to 29,000–25,000 BCE Right: Distribution of Celtic peoples, showing expansion of the core territory in the Czech lands, which were inhabited by the Gallic tribe of Boii The core Hallstatt territory before 500 BCE Maximum Celtic expansion by the 270s BCE Areas that remain Celtic-speaking today Archaeologists have found evidence of prehistoric human settlements in the area, dating back to the Paleolithic era. The figurine Venus of Dolní Věstonice, together with a few others from nearby locations, found here is the oldest known ceramic article in the world. In the classical era, from the 3rd century BC Celtic migrations, the Boii and later in the 1st century, Germanic tribes of Marcomanni and Quadi settled there. Their king Maroboduus is the first documented ruler of Bohemia. During the Migration Period around the 5th century, many Germanic tribes moved westwards and southwards out of Central Europe. Slavic people from the Black Sea–Carpathian region settled in the area (a movement that was also stimulated by the onslaught of peoples from Siberia and Eastern Europe: Huns, Avars, Bulgars and Magyars). In the sixth century, they moved westwards into Bohemia, Moravia and some of present-day Austria and Germany. During the 7th century, the Frankish merchant Samo, supporting the Slavs fighting against nearby settled Avars, became the ruler of the first known Slav state in Central Europe, the Samo's Empire. The principality Great Moravia, controlled by Moymir dynasty, arose in the 8th century and reached its zenith in the 9th (during the reign of Svatopluk I of Moravia) when it held off the influence of the Franks. Great Moravia was Christianized, with a crucial role being played by the Byzantine mission of Cyril and Methodius. They created the artificial language Old Church Slavonic, the first literary and liturgic language of the Slavs, and the Glagolitic alphabet. Bohemia Main article: Bohemia The Duchy of Bohemia and the Holy Roman Empire in 11th century The Duchy of Bohemia emerged in the late 9th century, when it was unified by the Přemyslid dynasty. In 10th century Boleslaus I, Duke of Bohemia conquered Moravia, Silesia and expanded farther to the east. The Duchy of Bohemia, raised to the Kingdom of Bohemia in 1198, was from 1002 until 1806 an Imperial State of the Holy Roman Empire alongside the Kingdom of Germany, the Kingdom of Burgundy, the Kingdom of Italy and numerous other territories such as the Old Swiss Confederacy and various Papal States. The kingdom was a significant regional power during the Middle Ages. In 1212, King Přemysl Ottokar I (bearing the title "king" from 1198) extracted the Golden Bull of Sicily (a formal edict) from the emperor, confirming Ottokar and his descendants' royal status; the Duchy of Bohemia was raised to a Kingdom. The bull declared that the King of Bohemia would be exempt from all future obligations to the Holy Roman Empire except for participation in imperial councils. German immigrants settled in the Bohemian periphery in the 13th century. Germans populated towns and mining districts and, in some cases, formed German colonies in the interior of Bohemia. In 1235, the Mongols launched an invasion of Europe. After the Battle of Legnica in Poland, the Mongols carried their raids into Moravia, but were defensively defeated at the fortified town of Olomouc.[35] The Mongols subsequently invaded and defeated Hungary.[36] Wenceslaus I, King of Bohemia (1230–1253) of the Přemyslid dynasty, Gelnhausen Codex King Přemysl Otakar II earned the nickname Iron and Golden King because of his military power and wealth. He acquired Austria, Styria, Carinthia and Carniola, thus spreading the Bohemian territory to the Adriatic Sea. He met his death at the Battle on the Marchfeld in 1278 in a war with his rival, King Rudolph I of Germany.[37] Ottokar's son Wenceslaus II acquired the Polish crown in 1300 for himself and the Hungarian crown for his son. He built a great empire stretching from the Danube river to the Baltic Sea. In 1306, the last king of Přemyslid line Wenceslaus III was murdered in mysterious circumstances in Olomouc while he was resting. After a series of dynastic wars, the House of Luxembourg gained the Bohemian throne.[38] The 14th century, in particular, the reign of the Bohemian king Charles IV (1316–1378), who in 1346 became King of the Romans and in 1354 both King of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor, is considered the Golden Age of Czech history. Of particular significance was the founding of Charles University in Prague in 1348, Charles Bridge, Charles Square. Much of Prague Castle and the cathedral of Saint Vitus in Gothic style were completed during his reign. He unified Brandenburg (until 1415), Lusatia (until 1635), and Silesia (until 1742) under the Bohemian crown. The Black Death, which had raged in Europe from 1347 to 1352, decimated the Kingdom of Bohemia in 1380,[39] killing about 10% of the population.[40] The Crown of Bohemia within the Holy Roman Empire (1600). The Czech lands were part of the Empire in 1002–1806, and Prague was the imperial seat in 1346–1437 and 1583–1611. Bohemian Reformation started around 1402 by Jan Hus. Although Hus was named a heretic and burnt in Constance in 1415, his followers (led by warlords Jan Žižka and Prokop the Great) seceded from the Catholic Church and in the Hussite Wars (1419–1434) defeated five crusades organized against them by the Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund. Petr Chelčický continued with the Hussite movement. During the next two centuries, 90% of the population in Bohemian and Moravian lands were considered Hussites. Hussite George of Podebrady was even a king. Hus' thoughts were a major influence on the later Lutheranism. Martin Luther himself said "we are all Hussites, without having been aware of it" and considered himself as Hus' direct successor.[41] Painting of battle between mounted knights Battle between Protestant Hussites and Catholic crusaders during the Hussite Wars; Jena Codex, 15th century After 1526 Bohemia came increasingly under Habsburg control as the Habsburgs became first the elected and then in 1627 the hereditary rulers of Bohemia. The Austrian Habsburgs of the 16th century, the founders of the central European Habsburg Monarchy, were buried in Prague. Between 1583–1611 Prague was the official seat of the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II and his court. The Defenestration of Prague and subsequent revolt against the Habsburgs in 1618 marked the start of the Thirty Years' War, which quickly spread throughout Central Europe. In 1620, the rebellion in Bohemia was crushed at the Battle of White Mountain, and the ties between Bohemia and the Habsburgs' hereditary lands in Austria were strengthened. The leaders of the Bohemian Revolt were executed in 1621. The nobility and the middle class Protestants had to either convert to Catholicism or leave the country.[42] The following period, from 1620 to the late 18th century, has often been called colloquially the "Dark Age". The population of the Czech lands declined by a third through the expulsion of Czech Protestants as well as due to the war, disease and famine.[43] The Habsburgs prohibited all Christian confessions other than Catholicism.[44] The flowering of Baroque culture shows the ambiguity of this historical period. Ottoman Turks and Tatars invaded Moravia in 1663.[45] In 1679–1680 the Czech lands faced a devastating plague and an uprising of serfs.[46] The 1618 Defenestration of Prague marked the beginning of the Bohemian Revolt against the Habsburgs and therefore the first phase of the Thirty Years' War. The reigns of Maria Theresa of Austria and her son Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor and co-regent from 1765, were characterized by enlightened absolutism. In 1740, most of Silesia (except the southernmost area) was seized by King Frederick II of Prussia in the Silesian Wars. In 1757 the Prussians invaded Bohemia and after the Battle of Prague (1757) occupied the city. More than one quarter of Prague was destroyed and St. Vitus Cathedral also suffered heavy damage. Frederick was defeated soon after at the Battle of Kolín and had to leave Prague and retreat from Bohemia. In 1770 and 1771 Great Famine killed about one tenth of the Czech population, or 250,000 inhabitants, and radicalised the countryside leading to peasant uprisings.[47] Serfdom was abolished (in two steps) between 1781 and 1848. Several large battles of the Napoleonic Wars – Battle of Austerlitz, Battle of Kulm – took place on the current territory of the Czech Republic. Joseph Radetzky von Radetz, born to a noble Czech family, was a field marshal and chief of the general staff of the Austrian Empire army during these wars. The end of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 led to degradation of the political status of the Kingdom of Bohemia. Bohemia lost its position of an electorate of the Holy Roman Empire as well as its own political representation in the Imperial Diet.[48] Bohemian lands became part of the Austrian Empire and later of Austria–Hungary. During the 18th and 19th century the Czech National Revival began its rise, with the purpose to revive Czech language, culture and national identity. The Revolution of 1848 in Prague, striving for liberal reforms and autonomy of the Bohemian Crown within the Austrian Empire, was suppressed.[49] Ceremonial laying of the foundation stone of the National Theatre during the Czech National Revival, 1868 In 1866 Austria was defeated by Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War (see also Battle of Königgrätz and Peace of Prague). The Austrian Empire needed to redefine itself to maintain unity in the face of nationalism. At first it seemed that some concessions would be made also to Bohemia, but in the end the Emperor Franz Joseph I effected a compromise with Hungary only. The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and the never realized coronation of Franz Joseph as King of Bohemia led to a huge disappointment of Czech politicians.[49] The Bohemian Crown lands became part of the so-called Cisleithania (officially "The Kingdoms and Lands represented in the Imperial Council"). Prague pacifist Bertha von Suttner was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1905. In the same year, the Czech Social Democratic and progressive politicians (including Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk) started the fight for universal suffrage. The first elections under universal male suffrage were held in 1907. The last King of Bohemia was Blessed Charles of Austria who ruled in 1916–1918. Czechoslovakia Main article: History of Czechoslovakia Rally in Prague on Wenceslas Square for the Czechoslovak declaration of independence from the Habsburg Austro-Hungarian Empire, 28 October 1918 An estimated 1.4 million Czech soldiers fought in World War I, of whom some 150,000 died. Although the majority of Czech soldiers fought for the Austro-Hungarian Empire, more than 90,000 Czech volunteers formed the Czechoslovak Legions in France, Italy and Russia, where they fought against the Central Powers and later against Bolshevik troops.[50] In 1918, during the collapse of the Habsburg Empire at the end of World War I, the independent republic of Czechoslovakia, which joined the winning Allied powers, was created, with Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk in the lead. This new country incorporated the Bohemian Crown (Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia) and parts of the Kingdom of Hungary (Slovakia and the Carpathian Ruthenia) with significant German, Hungarian, Polish and Ruthenian speaking minorities.[51] Czechoslovakia concluded a treaty of alliance with Romania and Yugoslavia (the so-called Little Entente) and particularly with France. The First Czechoslovak Republic comprised only 27% of the population of the former Austria-Hungary, but nearly 80% of the industry, which enabled it to successfully compete with Western industrial states.[52] In 1929 compared to 1913, the gross domestic product increased by 52% and industrial production by 41%. In 1938 Czechoslovakia held a 10th place in the world industrial production.[53] Although the First Czechoslovak Republic was a unitary state, it provided what were at the time rather extensive rights to its minorities and remained the only democracy in this part of Europe in the interwar period. The effects of the Great Depression including high unemployment and massive propaganda from Nazi Germany, however, resulted in discontent and strong support among ethnic Germans for a break from Czechoslovakia. The First Czechoslovak Republic comprised only 27% of the population of the former Austria-Hungary, but nearly 80% of the industry.[52] Adolf Hitler took advantage of this opportunity and using Konrad Henlein's separatist Sudeten German Party, gained the largely German speaking Sudetenland (and its substantial Maginot Line-like border fortifications) through the 1938 Munich Agreement (signed by Nazi Germany, France, Britain, and Italy). Czechoslovakia was not invited to the conference, and Czechs and Slovaks call the Munich Agreement the Munich Betrayal because France (which had an alliance with Czechoslovakia) and Britain gave up Czechoslovakia instead of facing Hitler, which later proved inevitable. Despite the mobilization of 1.2 million-strong Czechoslovak army and the Franco-Czech military alliance, Poland annexed the Zaolzie area around Český Těšín; Hungary gained parts of Slovakia and the Subcarpathian Rus as a result of the First Vienna Award in November 1938. The remainders of Slovakia and the Subcarpathian Rus gained greater autonomy, with the state renamed to "Czecho-Slovakia". After Nazi Germany threatened to annex part of Slovakia, allowing the remaining regions to be partitioned by Hungary and Poland, Slovakia chose to maintain its national and territorial integrity, seceding from Czecho-Slovakia in March 1939, and allying itself, as demanded by Germany, with Hitler's coalition.[54] Portrait Portrait Left: Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, first president of Czechoslovakia Right: Edvard Beneš, president before and after World War II. The remaining Czech territory was occupied by Germany, which transformed it into the so-called Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia. The protectorate was proclaimed part of the Third Reich, and the president and prime minister were subordinated to the Nazi Germany's Reichsprotektor. Subcarpathian Rus declared independence as the Republic of Carpatho-Ukraine on 15 March 1939 but was invaded by Hungary the same day and formally annexed the next day. Approximately 345,000 Czechoslovak citizens, including 277,000 Jews, were killed or executed while hundreds of thousands of others were sent to prisons and Nazi concentration camps or used as forced labour. Up to two-thirds of the citizens were in groups targeted by the Nazis for deportation or death.[55] One concentration camp was located within the Czech territory at Terezín, north of Prague. The Nazi Generalplan Ost called for the extermination, expulsion, Germanization or enslavement of most or all Czechs for the purpose of providing more living space for the German people.[56] There was Czech resistance to Nazi occupation, both at home and abroad, most notably with the assassination of Nazi German leader Reinhard Heydrich by Czechoslovakian soldiers Jozef Gabčík and Jan Kubiš in a Prague suburb on 27 May 1942. On 9 June 1942 Hitler ordered bloody reprisals against the Czechs as a response to the Czech anti-Nazi resistance. The Edvard Beneš's Czechoslovak government-in-exile and its army fought against the Germans and were acknowledged by the Allies; Czech/Czechoslovak troops fought from the very beginning of the war in Poland, France, the UK, North Africa, the Middle East and the Soviet Union (see I Czechoslovakian Corps). The German occupation ended on 9 May 1945, with the arrival of the Soviet and American armies and the Prague uprising. An estimated 140,000 Soviet soldiers died in liberating Czechoslovakia from German rule.[57] Following the German occupation of Czechoslovakia and formation of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia within Nazi Germany, exiled Czechs fought alongside Allies of World War II, such as No. 310 Squadron RAF. In 1945–1946, almost the entire German-speaking minority in Czechoslovakia, about 3 million people, were expelled to Germany and Austria (see also Beneš decrees). During this time, thousands of Germans were held in prisons and detention camps or used as forced labour. In the summer of 1945, there were several massacres, such as the Postoloprty massacre. Research by a joint German and Czech commission of historians in 1995 found that the death toll of the expulsions was at least 15,000 persons and that it could range up to a maximum of 30,000 dead.[58] The only Germans not expelled were some 250,000 who had been active in the resistance against the Nazi Germans or were considered economically important, though many of these emigrated later. Following a Soviet-organised referendum, the Subcarpathian Rus never returned under Czechoslovak rule but became part of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, as the Zakarpattia Oblast in 1946. Czechoslovakia uneasily tried to play the role of a "bridge" between the West and East. However, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia rapidly increased in popularity, with a general disillusionment with the West, because of the pre-war Munich Agreement, and a favourable popular attitude towards the Soviet Union, because of the Soviets' role in liberating Czechoslovakia from German rule. In the 1946 elections, the Communists gained 38%[59] of the votes and became the largest party in the Czechoslovak parliament. They formed a coalition government with other parties of the National Front and moved quickly to consolidate power. A significant change came in 1948 with coup d'état by the Communist Party. The Communist People's Militias secured control of key locations in Prague, and a single party government was formed. The Prague Spring political liberalization of the communist regime was stopped by the 1968 Soviet-led invasion. For the next 41 years, Czechoslovakia was a Communist state within the Eastern Bloc. This period is characterized by lagging behind the West in almost every aspect of social and economic development. The country's GDP per capita fell from the level of neighboring Austria below that of Greece or Portugal in the 1980s. The Communist government completely nationalized the means of production and established a command economy. The economy grew rapidly during the 1950s but slowed down in the 1960s and 1970s and stagnated in the 1980s. The political climate was highly repressive during the 1950s, including numerous show trials (the most famous victims: Milada Horáková and Rudolf Slánský) and hundreds of thousands of political prisoners, but became more open and tolerant in the late 1960s, culminating in Alexander Dubček's leadership in the 1968 Prague Spring, which tried to create "socialism with a human face" and perhaps even introduce political pluralism. This was forcibly ended by invasion by all Warsaw Pact member countries with the exception of Romania and Albania on 21 August 1968. Student Jan Palach became a symbol of resistance to the occupation, when he committed self-immolation as a political protest. The invasion was followed by a harsh program of "Normalization" in the late 1960s and the 1970s. Until 1989, the political establishment relied on censorship of the opposition. Dissidents published Charter 77 in 1977, and the first of a new wave of protests were seen in 1988. Between 1948 and 1989 about 250,000 Czechs and Slovaks were sent to prison for political reasons, and over 400,000 emigrated.[60] Velvet Revolution and the European Union Main articles: Velvet Revolution and Dissolution of Czechoslovakia Václav Havel, first President of the Czech Republic In November 1989, Czechoslovakia returned to a liberal democracy through the peaceful "Velvet Revolution" (led by Václav Havel and his Civic Forum). However, Slovak national aspirations strengthened (see Hyphen War) and on 1 January 1993, the country peacefully split into the independent Czech Republic and Slovakia. Both countries went through economic reforms and privatisations, with the intention of creating a market economy. This process was largely successful; in 2006 the Czech Republic was recognised by the World Bank as a "developed country",[16] and in 2009 the Human Development Index ranked it as a nation of "Very High Human Development".[61] From 1991, the Czech Republic, originally as part of Czechoslovakia and since 1993 in its own right, has been a member of the Visegrád Group and from 1995, the OECD. The Czech Republic joined NATO on 12 March 1999 and the European Union on 1 May 2004. On 21 December 2007 the Czech Republic joined the Schengen Area. Until 2017, either the Social Democrats (under Miloš Zeman, Vladimír Špidla, Stanislav Gross, Jiří Paroubek and Bohuslav Sobotka), or liberal-conservatives (under Václav Klaus, Mirek Topolánek and Petr Nečas) led the government of the Czech Republic. Geography Main article: Geography of the Czech Republic Topographic map The Czech Republic lies mostly between latitudes 48° and 51° N (a small area lies north of 51°), and longitudes 12° and 19° E. The Czech landscape is exceedingly varied. Bohemia, to the west, consists of a basin drained by the Elbe (Czech: Labe) and the Vltava rivers, surrounded by mostly low mountains, such as the Krkonoše range of the Sudetes. The highest point in the country, Sněžka at 1,603 m (5,259 ft), is located here. Moravia, the eastern part of the country, is also quite hilly. It is drained mainly by the Morava River, but it also contains the source of the Oder River (Czech: Odra). Water from the landlocked Czech Republic flows to three different seas: the North Sea, Baltic Sea and Black Sea. The Czech Republic also leases the Moldauhafen, a 30,000-square-metre (7.4-acre) lot in the middle of the Hamburg Docks, which was awarded to Czechoslovakia by Article 363 of the Treaty of Versailles, to allow the landlocked country a place where goods transported down river could be transferred to seagoing ships. The territory reverts to Germany in 2028. Phytogeographically, the Czech Republic belongs to the Central European province of the Circumboreal Region, within the Boreal Kingdom. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature, the territory of the Czech Republic can be subdivided into four ecoregions: the Western European broadleaf forests, Central European mixed forests, Pannonian mixed forests, and Carpathian montane conifer forests. There are four national parks in the Czech Republic. The oldest is Krkonoše National Park (Biosphere Reserve), and the others are Šumava National Park (Biosphere Reserve), Podyjí National Park, Bohemian Switzerland. The three historical lands of the Czech Republic (formerly the core countries of the Bohemian Crown) correspond almost perfectly with the river basins of the Elbe (Czech: Labe) and the Vltava basin for Bohemia, the Morava one for Moravia, and the Oder river basin for Czech Silesia (in terms of the Czech territory). Temperate deciduous forest in Křivoklátsko Protected Landscape Area Rolling hills of Králický Sněžník in northern Czech Republic Bohemian Forest foothills and Kašperk castle, southern Bohemia Berounka river valley in western Bohemia Beskids mountains in eastern Moravia Climate Köppen climate classification types of the Czech Republic Humid continental climate Oceanic climate Subarctic climate The Czech Republic mostly has a temperate oceanic climate, with warm summers and cold, cloudy and snowy winters. The temperature difference between summer and winter is relatively high, due to the landlocked geographical position.[62] Within the Czech Republic, temperatures vary greatly, depending on the elevation. In general, at higher altitudes, the temperatures decrease and precipitation increases. The wettest area in the Czech Republic is found around Bílý Potok in Jizera Mountains and the driest region is the Louny District to the northwest of Prague. Another important factor is the distribution of the mountains; therefore, the climate is quite varied. At the highest peak of Sněžka (1,603 m or 5,259 ft), the average temperature is only −0.4 °C (31 °F), whereas in the lowlands of the South Moravian Region, the average temperature is as high as 10 °C (50 °F). The country's capital, Prague, has a similar average temperature, although this is influenced by urban factors. The coldest month is usually January, followed by February and December. During these months, there is usually snow in the mountains and sometimes in the major cities and lowlands. During March, April and May, the temperature usually increases rapidly, especially during April, when the temperature and weather tends to vary widely during the day. Spring is also characterized by high water levels in the rivers, due to melting snow with occasional flooding. The warmest month of the year is July, followed by August and June. On average, summer temperatures are about 20 °C (36 °F) – 30 °C (54 °F) higher than during winter. Summer is also characterized by rain and storms. Moravian-Silesian Beskids Autumn generally begins in September, which is still relatively warm and dry. During October, temperatures usually fall below 15 °C (59 °F) or 10 °C (50 °F) and deciduous trees begin to shed their leaves. By the end of November, temperatures usually range around the freezing point. The coldest temperature ever measured was in Litvínovice near České Budějovice in 1929, at −42.2 °C (−44.0 °F) and the hottest measured, was at 40.4 °C (104.7 °F) in Dobřichovice in 2012.[63] Most rain falls during the summer. Sporadic rainfall is relatively constant throughout the year (in Prague, the average number of days per month experiencing at least 0.1 mm of rain varies from 12 in September and October to 16 in November) but concentrated heavy rainfall (days with more than 10 mm per day) are more frequent in the months of May to August (average around two such days per month).[64] Environment See also: Protected areas of the Czech Republic and Fauna of the Czech Republic The Czech Republic ranks as the 27th most environmentally conscious country in the world in Environmental Performance Index.[65] The Czech Republic has four National Parks (Šumava National Park, Krkonoše National Park, České Švýcarsko National Park, Podyjí National Park) and 25 Protected Landscape Areas. Map of protected areas Map of Protected areas of the Czech Republic: National Parks (grey) and Protected Landscape Areas (green). Large owl with prey European eagle-owl, a protected predator Cute lizard Fire salamander, a common amphibian in humid forests Red squirrel Red squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris), a protected animal Funghi on forest floor Summer cep occurs in deciduous oak forests. Government and politics Main articles: Government of the Czech Republic and Politics of the Czech Republic Miloš Zeman President Miloš Zeman Andrej Babiš Emblem of the Government of the Czech Republic.svg Prime Minister Andrej Babiš The Czech Republic is a pluralist multi-party parliamentary representative democracy, with the President as head of state and Prime Minister as head of government. The Parliament (Parlament České republiky) is bicameral, with the Chamber of Deputies (Czech: Poslanecká sněmovna) (200 members) and the Senate (Czech: Senát) (81 members).[66] The president is a formal head of state with limited and specific powers, most importantly to return bills to the parliament, appoint members to the board of the Czech National Bank, nominate constitutional court judges for the Senate's approval and dissolve the Chamber of Deputies under certain special and unusual circumstances. The president and vice president of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President of the Republic. He also appoints the prime minister, as well the other members of the cabinet on a proposal by the prime minister. From 1993 until 2012, the President of the Czech Republic was selected by a joint session of the parliament for a five-year term, with no more than two consecutive terms (2x Václav Havel, 2x Václav Klaus). Since 2013 the presidential election is direct.[67] Miloš Zeman was the first directly elected Czech President. The Government of the Czech Republic's exercise of executive power derives from the Constitution. The members of the government are the Prime Minister, Deputy ministers and other ministers. The Government is responsible to the Chamber of Deputies.[68] The Prime Minister is the head of government and wields considerable powers, such as the right to set the agenda for most foreign and domestic policy and choose government ministers.[69] The current Prime Minister of the Czech Republic is Andrej Babiš, serving since 6 December 2017 as 12th Prime Minister. Wallenstein Palace, seat of the Senate Straka Academy, seat of the Government Thun Palace, seat of the Chamber of Deputies The members of the Chamber of Deputies are elected for a four-year term by proportional representation, with a 5% election threshold. There are 14 voting districts, identical to the country's administrative regions. The Chamber of Deputies, the successor to the Czech National Council, has the powers and responsibilities of the now defunct federal parliament of the former Czechoslovakia. The members of the Senate are elected in single-seat constituencies by two-round runoff voting for a six-year term, with one-third elected every even year in the autumn. The first election was in 1996, for differing terms. This arrangement is modeled on the U.S. Senate, but each constituency is roughly the same size and the voting system used is a two-round runoff. Main office holders Office Name Party Since President Miloš Zeman SPOZ 8 March 2013 President of the Senate Jaroslav Kubera ODS 14 November 2018 Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies Radek Vondráček ANO 22 November 2017 Prime Minister Andrej Babiš ANO 6 December 2017 Law Main articles: Law of the Czech Republic, Judiciary of the Czech Republic, and Law enforcement in the Czech Republic Seat of the Supreme Administrative Court of the Czech Republic in Brno The Czech Republic is a unitary state with a civil law system based on the continental type, rooted in Germanic legal culture. The basis of the legal system is the Constitution of the Czech Republic adopted in 1993. The Penal Code is effective from 2010. A new Civil code became effective in 2014. The court system includes district, county and supreme courts and is divided into civil, criminal, and administrative branches. The Czech judiciary has a triumvirate of supreme courts. The Constitutional Court consists of 15 constitutional judges and oversees violations of the Constitution by either the legislature or by the government. The Supreme Court is formed of 67 judges and is the court of highest appeal for almost all legal cases heard in the Czech Republic. The Supreme Administrative Court decides on issues of procedural and administrative propriety. It also has jurisdiction over many political matters, such as the formation and closure of political parties, jurisdictional boundaries between government entities, and the eligibility of persons to stand for public office. The Supreme Court and the Supreme Administrative Court are both based in Brno, as is the Supreme Public Prosecutor's Office. Foreign relations Main article: Foreign relations of the Czech Republic See also: Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Czech Republic Visa-free entry countries for Czech citizens in green, EU in blue (see citizenship of the European Union) The Czech Republic ranks as the 7th safest or most peaceful country. It is a member of the United Nations, the European Union, NATO, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Council of Europe and is an observer to the Organization of American States.[70] The embassies of most countries with diplomatic relations with the Czech Republic are located in Prague, while consulates are located across the country. According to the 2018 Henley & Partners Visa Restrictions Index, Czech citizens have visa-free access to 173 countries, which ranks them 7th along with Malta and New Zealand.[71] and World Tourism Organization ranks Czech passport 24th, which makes them one of the least restricted by visas to travel abroad.[72] The US Visa Waiver Program applies to Czech nationals. The Prime Minister and Minister of Foreign Affairs have primary roles in setting foreign policy, although the President has considerable influence and also represents the country abroad. Membership in the European Union and NATO is central to the Czech Republic's foreign policy. The Office for Foreign Relations and Information (ÚZSI) serves as the foreign intelligence agency responsible for espionage and foreign policy briefings, as well as protection of Czech Republic's embassies abroad. The Czech Republic has strong ties with Slovakia, Poland and Hungary as a member of the Visegrad Group,[73] as well as with Germany,[74] Israel,[75] the United States[76] and the European Union and its members. Czech officials have supported dissenters in Belarus, Moldova, Myanmar and Cuba.[77] Military Czech Army soldiers during an exercise Main article: Army of the Czech Republic The Czech armed forces consist of the Czech Land Forces, the Czech Air Force and of specialized support units. The armed forces are managed by the Ministry of Defence. The President of the Czech Republic is Commander-in-chief of the armed forces. In 2004 the army transformed itself into a fully professional organization and compulsory military service was abolished. The country has been a member of NATO since 12 March 1999. Defense spending is approximately 1.04% of the GDP (2015).[78] The armed forces are charged with protecting the Czech Republic and its allies, promoting global security interests, and contributing to NATO. Currently, as a member of NATO, the Czech military are participating in KFOR and ISAF (renamed to Resolute Support) operations and have soldiers in Afghanistan, Kosovo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Somalia, Israel and Mali. The Czech Air Force also served in the Baltic states and Iceland.[79] Main equipment includes: multi-role fighters JAS 39 Gripen, combat aircraft Aero L-159 Alca, modernized attack helicopters Mi-35, armored vehicles Pandur II, OT-64, OT-90, BVP-2 and Czech modernized tanks T-72 (T-72M4CZ). Administrative divisions See also: Regions of the Czech Republic and List of districts of the Czech Republic Since 2000, the Czech Republic has been divided into thirteen regions (Czech: kraje, singular kraj) and the capital city of Prague. Every region has its own elected regional assembly (krajské zastupitelstvo) and hejtman (a regional governor). In Prague, the assembly and presidential powers are executed by the city council and the mayor. The older seventy-six districts (okresy, singular okres) including three "statutory cities" (without Prague, which had special status) lost most of their importance in 1999 in an administrative reform; they remain as territorial divisions and seats of various branches of state administration.[80] Map of the Czech Republic with traditional regions and current administrative regions Map with districts Licence plate letter Region name in English Region name in Czech Administrative seat Population (2004 estimate) Population (2011 estimate)[81] A Prague a Hlavní město Praha n/a 1,170,571 1,268,796 S Central Bohemian Region Středočeský kraj Pragueb 1,144,071 1,289,211 C South Bohemian Region Jihočeský kraj České Budějovice 625,712 628,336 P Plzeň Region Plzeňský kraj Plzeň 549,618 570,401 K Karlovy Vary Region Karlovarský kraj Karlovy Vary 304,588 295,595 U Ústí nad Labem Region Ústecký kraj Ústí nad Labem 822,133 835,814 L Liberec Region Liberecký kraj Liberec 427,563 432,439 H Hradec Králové Region Královéhradecký kraj Hradec Králové 547,296 547,916 E Pardubice Region Pardubický kraj Pardubice 505,285 511,627 M Olomouc Region Olomoucký kraj Olomouc 635,126 628,427 T Moravian-Silesian Region Moravskoslezský kraj Ostrava 1,257,554 1,205,834 B South Moravian Region Jihomoravský kraj Brno 1,123,201 1,163,508 Z Zlín Region Zlínský kraj Zlín 590,706 579,944 J Vysočina Region Kraj Vysočina Jihlava 517,153 505,565 a Capital city. b Office location. Economy Main article: Economy of the Czech Republic The Czech Republic is part of the European Single Market and the Schengen Area, but uses its own currency, the Czech koruna, instead of the euro. Škoda Auto is one of the largest car manufacturers in Central Europe. A Škoda Superb is pictured. The Czech Republic has a developed,[82] high-income[83] export-oriented social market economy based in services, manufacturing and innovation, that maintains a welfare state and the "continental" type of the European social model.[84] The Czech Republic is participating in the European Single Market as a member of the European Union, and is therefore a part of the economy of the European Union, but uses its own currency, the Czech koruna, instead of the euro. It has a per capita GDP rate that is 89% of the EU average[85] and is a member of the OECD. Monetary policy is conducted by the Czech National Bank, whose independence is guaranteed by the Constitution. As of 2017, the Czech GDP per capita at purchasing power parity is $35,223 (similar to Israel, Italy or Slovenia),[86] $20,152 at nominal value[87] and the GDP growth was 4.5% in 2017, giving the Czech economy one of the highest growth rates in the European Union.[88] As of January 2018, the unemployment rate in the Czech Republic was the lowest in the EU at 2.4%,[89] and the poverty rate is the second lowest of OECD members only behind Denmark.[90] Czech Republic ranks 24th in both the Index of Economic Freedom (ranked behind Norway)[91] and the Global Innovation Index (ranked behind Australia),[92] 29th in the Global Competitiveness Report[93] 30th in the ease of doing business index and 25th in the Global Enabling Trade Report (ranked behind Canada).[94] The Czech Republic has a highly diverse economy that ranks 7th in the 2016 Economic Complexity Index.[95] The industry sector accounts for 37.5% of the economy, while services for 60% and agriculture for 2.5%.[96] The largest trading partner for both export and import is Germany and the EU in general. The country has been a member of the Schengen Area since 1 May 2004, having abolished border controls, completely opening its borders with all of its neighbours (Germany, Austria, Poland and Slovakia) on 21 December 2007.[97] The Czech Republic became a member of the World Trade Organization on 1 January 1995. Industry In 2015 the largest companies by revenue in the Czech Republic were: one of the largest car automobile manufacturers in Central Europe Škoda Auto, utility company ČEZ Group, conglomerate Agrofert, energy trading company RWE Supply & Trading CZ and electronics manufacturer Foxconn CZ.[98] Other Czech transportation companies include: Škoda Transportation (tramways, trolleybuses, metro), Tatra (heavy trucks, the third oldest car maker in the world), Avia (medium trucks), Karosa and SOR Libchavy (buses), Aero Vodochody (military aircraft), Let Kunovice (civil aircraft), Zetor (tractors) and Jawa Moto (motorcycles). Škoda Transportation is the fourth largest tramway producer in the world; nearly one third of all trams in the world come from Czech factories.[99] The Czech Republic is also the world's largest vinyl records manufacturer, with GZ Media producing about 6 million pieces annually in Loděnice.[100] Energy Main article: Energy in the Czech Republic Dukovany Nuclear Power Station Production of Czech electricity exceeds consumption by about 10 TWh per year, which are exported. Nuclear power presently provides about 30 percent of the total power needs, its share is projected to increase to 40 percent. In 2005, 65.4 percent of electricity was produced by steam and combustion power plants (mostly coal); 30 percent by nuclear plants; and 4.6 percent from renewable sources, including hydropower. The largest Czech power resource is Temelín Nuclear Power Station, another nuclear power plant is in Dukovany. The Czech Republic is reducing its dependence on highly polluting low-grade brown coal as a source of energy. Natural gas is procured from Russian Gazprom, roughly three-fourths of domestic consumption and from Norwegian companies, which make up most of the remaining one-fourth. Russian gas is imported via Ukraine (Druzhba pipeline), Norwegian gas is transported through Germany. Gas consumption (approx. 100 TWh in 2003–2005) is almost double electricity consumption. South Moravia has small oil and gas deposits. Transportation infrastructure Main article: Transport in the Czech Republic A Škoda 7Ev electric multiple unit. The Czech railway network is largely electrified and is among the densest in Europe. Václav Havel Airport in Prague is the main international airport in the country. In 2010, it handled 11.6 million passengers, which makes it the second busiest airport in Central Europe.[citation needed] In total, the Czech Republic has 46 airports with paved runways, six of which provide international air services in Brno, Karlovy Vary, Mošnov (near Ostrava), Pardubice, Prague and Kunovice (near Uherské Hradiště). České dráhy (the Czech Railways) is the main railway operator in the Czech Republic, with about 180 million passengers carried yearly. With 9,505 km (5,906.13 mi) of tracks, the Czech Republic has one of the densest railway networks in Europe.[101] Of that number, 2,926 km (1,818.13 mi) is electrified, 7,617 km (4,732.98 mi) are single-line tracks and 1,866 km (1,159.48 mi) are double and multiple-line tracks.[102] Maximum speed is limited to 160 km/h. In 2006 seven Italian tilting trainsets Pendolino ČD Class 680 entered service. Russia, via pipelines through Ukraine and to a lesser extent, Norway, via pipelines through Germany, supply the Czech Republic with liquid and natural gas.[citation needed] The road network in the Czech Republic is 55,653 km (34,581.17 mi) long.[103] There are 1,247 km of motorways.[104] The speed limit is 50 km/h within towns, 90 km/h outside of towns and 130 km/h on motorways.[105] Communications and IT Avast headquarters in Prague Main article: Internet in the Czech Republic The Czech Republic ranks in the top 10 countries worldwide with the fastest average internet speed.[106] By the beginning of 2008, there were over 800 mostly local WISPs,[107][108] with about 350,000 subscribers in 2007. Plans based on either GPRS, EDGE, UMTS or CDMA2000 are being offered by all three mobile phone operators (T-Mobile, Telefónica O2, Vodafone) and internet provider U:fon. Government-owned Český Telecom slowed down broadband penetration. At the beginning of 2004, local-loop unbundling began and alternative operators started to offer ADSL and also SDSL. This and later privatisation of Český Telecom helped drive down prices. On 1 July 2006, Český Telecom was acquired by globalized company (Spain-owned) Telefónica group and adopted the new name Telefónica O2 Czech Republic. As of 2017, VDSL and ADSL2+ are offered in many variants, with download speeds of up to 50 Mbit/s and upload speeds of up to 5 Mbit/s. Cable internet is gaining popularity with its higher download speeds ranging from 50 Mbit/s to 1 Gbit/s. Two major computer security companies, Avast and AVG, were founded in the Czech Republic. In 2016, Avast led by Pavel Baudiš bought rival AVG for US$1.3 billion, together at the time, these companies had a user base of about 400 million people and 40% of the consumer market outside of China.[109][110] Avast is the leading provider of antivirus software, with a 20.5% market share.[111] Science and philosophy The Czech lands have a long and rich scientific tradition. The research based on cooperation between universities, Academy of Sciences and specialised research centers brings new inventions and impulses in this area. Important inventions include the modern contact lens, the separation of modern blood types, and the production of Semtex plastic explosive. Humanities Jan Hus (1369 – 1415) is a key figure of the Bohemian Reformation and inspired the pre-Protestant Hussite movement. Cyril and Methodius laid the foundations of education and the Czech theological thinking in the 9th century. Original theological and philosophical stream – Hussitism – originated in the Middle Ages. It was represented by Jan Hus, Jerome of Prague or Petr Chelčický. At the end of the Middle Ages, Jan Amos Comenius substantially contributed to the development of modern pedagogy. Jewish philosophy in the Czech lands was represented mainly by Judah Loew ben Bezalel (known for the legend of the Golem of Prague). Bernard Bolzano was the personality of German-speaking philosophy in the Czech lands. Bohuslav Balbín was a key Czech philosopher and historian of the Baroque era. He also started the struggle for rescuing the Czech language. This culminated in the Czech national revival in the first half of the 19th century. Linguistics (Josef Dobrovský, Pavel Jozef Šafařík, Josef Jungmann), etnography (Karel Jaromír Erben, František Ladislav Čelakovský) and history (František Palacký) played a big role in revival. Palacký was the eminent personality. He wrote the first synthetic history of the Czech nation. He was also the first Czech modern politician and geopolitician (see also Austro-Slavism). He is often called "The Father of the Nation". In the second half of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century there was a huge development of social sciences. Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk laid the foundations of Czech sociology. Konstantin Jireček founded Byzantology (see also Jireček Line). Alois Musil was a prominent orientalist, Emil Holub ethnographer. Lubor Niederle was a founder of modern Czech archeology. Sigmund Freud established psychoanalysis. Edmund Husserl defined a new philosophical doctrine – phenomenology. Joseph Schumpeter brought genuine economic ideas of "creative destruction" of capitalism. Hans Kelsen was significant legal theorist. Karl Kautsky influenced the history of Marxism. On the contrary, economist Eugen Böhm von Bawerk led a campaign against Marxism. Max Wertheimer was one of the three founders of Gestalt psychology. Musicologists Eduard Hanslick and Guido Adler influenced debates on the development of classical music in Vienna. The new Czechoslovak republic (1918–1938) wanted to develop sciences. Significant linguistic school was established in Prague – Prague Linguistic Circle (Vilém Mathesius, Jan Mukařovský, René Wellek), moreover linguist Bedřich Hrozný deciphered the ancient Hittite language and linguist Julius Pokorny deepened knowledge about Celtic languages. Philosopher Herbert Feigl was a member of the Vienna Circle. Ladislav Klíma has developed a special version of Nietzschean philosophy. In the second half of the 20th century can be mentioned philosopher Ernest Gellner who is considered one of the leading theoreticians on the issue of nationalism. Also Czech historian Miroslav Hroch analyzed modern nationalism. Vilém Flusser developed the philosophy of technology and image. Marxist Karel Kosík was a major philosopher in the background of the Prague Spring 1968. Jan Patočka and Václav Havel were the main ideologists of the Charter 77. Egon Bondy was a major philosophical spokesman of the Czech underground in the 1970s and 1980s. Czech Egyptology has scored some successes, its main representative is Miroslav Verner. Czech psychologist Stanislav Grof developed a method of "Holotropic Breathwork". Experimental archaeologist Pavel Pavel made several attempts, they had to answer the question how ancient civilizations transported heavy weights. Science and technology Nobel Prize laureate Jaroslav Heyrovský in the lab Portrait Portrait Brothers Josef Čapek (left) and Karel Čapek (right), invented and introduced the word robot Gregor Mendel, founder of genetics Jan Evangelista Purkyně Famous scientists who were born on the territory of the current Czech Republic: Friedrich von Berchtold (1781–1876), botanist, an avid worker for Czech national revival. Wenceslas Bojer (1795–1856), naturalist and botanist. Ignaz von Born (1742–1791), mineralogist and metallurgist, one of founders of the Royal Bohemian Society of Sciences. Stanislav Brebera (1925–2012), inventor of the plastic explosive Semtex in 1966.[112] Josef Čapek (1887–1945) and Karel Čapek (1890–1938), brothers who originated the word robot, for drama R.U.R. Eduard Čech (1893–1960), mathematician with significant contributions in topology. Václav Prokop Diviš (1698–1765), inventor of the first grounded lightning rod. Karel Domin (1882–1953), botanist, specialist in Australian taxonomy František Josef Gerstner (1756–1832), physicist and engineer, built the first iron works and the first steam engine in Czech lands. Gerty and Carl Cori – Nobel Prize laureates in Physiology or Medicine 1947. Kurt Gödel (1906–1978) logician and mathematician, who became famous for his two incompleteness theorems. Peter Grünberg (* 1939) Nobel Prize laureate in Physics 2007. Jaroslav Heyrovský (1890–1967), inventor of polarography, electroanalytical chemistry and recipient of the Nobel Prize.[113] Josef Hlavka (15 February 1831 – 11 March 1908), was a Czech architect, builder, philanthropist and founder of the oldest Czech foundation for sciences and arts. Antonín Holý (1936–2012), scientist and chemist, in 2009 was involved in creation of the most effective drug in the treatment of AIDS.[114] Jakub Husník (1837–1916), improved the process of photolithography. Jan Janský (1873–1921), serologist and neurologist, discovered the ABO blood groups. Georg Joseph Kamel (1661–1706), Czech Jesuit, pharmacist and naturalist known for producing first comprehensive accounts of the Philippine flora; genus of flowering plants Camellia is named in his honour. Karel Klíč (1841–1926), painter and photographer, inventor of the photogravure. František Křižík (1847–1941), electrical engineer, inventor of the arc lamp. Julius Vincenz von Krombholz (1782–1843), biologist, founder of the great tradition of Czech mycology.* Johann Josef Loschmidt (1821–1895), chemist, performed ground-breaking work in crystal forms. Ernst Mach (1838–1916) physicist and critic of Newton's theories of space and time, foreshadowing Einstein's theory of relativity. Jan Marek Marci (1595–1667), mathematician, physicist and imperial physician, one of the founders of spectroscopy.[115] Christian Mayer (1719–1783), astronomer, pioneer in the study of binary stars. Gregor Mendel (1822–1884), often called the "father of genetics", is famed for his research concerning the inheritance of genetic traits.[113] Johann Palisa (1848–1925), astronomer who discovered 122 asteroids Ferdinand Porsche (1875–1951), automotive designer. Carl Borivoj Presl (1794–1852) and Jan Svatopluk Presl (1791–1849), brothers, both prominent botanists. Jan Evangelista Purkyně (1787–1869), anatomist and physiologist responsible for the discovery of Purkinje cells, Purkinje fibres and sweat glands, as well as Purkinje images and the Purkinje shift. Jakub Kryštof Rad (1799–1871), inventor of sugar cubes. Vladimír Remek was the first person outside of the Soviet Union and the United States to go into space (in March 1978). Josef Ressel (1793–1857), inventor of the screw propeller and modern compass.[113] Carl von Rokitansky (1804–1878), Joseph Škoda (1805–1881) and Ferdinand Ritter von Hebra (1816–1880), Czech doctors and founders of the Modern Medical School of Vienna. Heinrich Wilhelm Schott (1794–1865), botanist well known for his extensive work on aroids. Alois Senefelder (1771–1834), inventor of lithographic printing. Zdenko Hans Skraup (1850–1910), chemist who discovered the Skraup reaction, the first quinoline synthesis. Kaspar Maria von Sternberg (1761–1838), mineralogist, founder of the Bohemian National Museum in Prague. Ferdinand Stoliczka (1838–1874), palaeontologist who died of high altitude sickness during an expedition across the Himalayas. Karl von Terzaghi (1883–1963), geologist known as the "father of soil mechanics". Hans Tropsch (1889–1935), chemist responsible for the development of the Fischer-Tropsch process. Otto Wichterle (1913–1998) and Drahoslav Lím (1925–2003), Czech chemists responsible for the invention of the modern contact lens and silon (synthetic fiber).[116] Johannes Widmann (1460–1498), mathematician, inventor of the + and − symbols. A number of other scientists are also connected in some way with the Czech lands. The following taught at the University of Prague: astronomers Johannes Kepler and Tycho Brahe, physicists Christian Doppler, Nikola Tesla, and Albert Einstein, and geologist Joachim Barrande. Tourism Main article: Tourism in the Czech Republic The Historic Centre of Prague is a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1992. The Czech economy gets a substantial income from tourism. Prague is the fifth most visited city in Europe after London, Paris, Istanbul and Rome.[117] In 2001, the total earnings from tourism reached 118 billion CZK, making up 5.5% of GNP and 9% of overall export earnings. The industry employs more than 110,000 people – over 1% of the population.[118] The country's reputation has suffered with guidebooks and tourists reporting overcharging by taxi drivers and pickpocketing problems mainly in Prague, though the situation has improved recently.[119][120] Since 2005, Prague's mayor, Pavel Bém, has worked to improve this reputation by cracking down on petty crime[120] and, aside from these problems, Prague is a safe city.[121] Also, the Czech Republic as a whole generally has a low crime rate.[122] For tourists, the Czech Republic is considered a safe destination to visit. The low crime rate makes most cities and towns very safe to walk around. One of the most visited tourist attractions in the Czech Republic[123] is the Nether district Vítkovice in Ostrava, a post-industrial city on the northeast of the country. The territory was formerly the site of steel production, but now it hosts a technical museum with many interactive expositions for tourists. The Czech Republic boasts 12 UNESCO World Heritage Sites. All of them are in the cultural category. As of 2018, further 18 sites are on the tentative list.[124] Medieval castles such as Karlštejn are frequent tourist attractions. There are several centres of tourist activity. The spa towns, such as Karlovy Vary, Mariánské Lázně and Františkovy Lázně and Jáchymov, are particularly popular relaxing holiday destinations.[citation needed] Architectural heritage is another object of interest to visitors – it includes many castles and châteaux from different historical epoques, namely Karlštejn Castle, Český Krumlov and the Lednice–Valtice area. There are 12 cathedrals and 15 churches elevated to the rank of basilica by the Pope, calm monasteries, many modern and ancient churches – for example Pilgrimage Church of Saint John of Nepomuk is one of those inscribed on the World Heritage List. Away from the towns, areas such as Český ráj, Šumava and the Krkonoše Mountains attract visitors seeking outdoor pursuits. The country is also known for its various museums. Puppetry and marionette exhibitions are very popular, with a number of puppet festivals throughout the country.[125] Aquapalace Praha in Čestlice near Prague, is the biggest water park in central Europe.[126] The Czech Republic has a number of beer festivals, including: Czech Beer Festival (the biggest Czech beer festival, it is usually 17 days long and held every year in May in Prague), Pilsner Fest (every year in August in Plzeň), The Olomoucký pivní festival (in Olomouc) or festival Slavnosti piva v Českých Budějovicích (in České Budějovice). Demographics Main article: Demographics of the Czech Republic Folk music band from southern Bohemia wearing local folk costumes Historical population Year Pop. ±% 1857 7,016,531 — 1869 7,617,230 +8.6% 1880 8,222,013 +7.9% 1890 8,665,421 +5.4% 1900 9,372,214 +8.2% 1910 10,078,637 +7.5% 1921 10,009,587 −0.7% 1930 10,674,386 +6.6% 1950 8,896,133 −16.7% 1961 9,571,531 +7.6% 1970 9,807,697 +2.5% 1980 10,291,927 +4.9% 1991 10,302,215 +0.1% 2001 10,230,060 −0.7% 2011 10,436,560 +2.0% 2016 10,572,427 +1.3% According to preliminary results of the 2011 census, the majority of the inhabitants of the Czech Republic are Czechs (63.7%), followed by Moravians (4.9%), Slovaks (1.4%), Poles (0.4%), Germans (0.2%) and Silesians (0.1%). As the 'nationality' was an optional item, a substantial number of people left this field blank (26.0%).[127] According to some estimates, there are about 250,000 Romani people in the Czech Republic.[128][129] The Polish minority resides mainly in the Zaolzie region.[130] There were 496,413 (4.5% of population) foreigners residing in the country in 2016, according to the Czech Statistical Office, with the largest groups being Ukrainian (22%), Slovak (22%), Vietnamese (12%), Russian (7%), German (4%) and from other countries (33%). Most of the foreign population lives in Prague (37.3%) and Central Bohemia Region (13.2%).[131] The Jewish population of Bohemia and Moravia, 118,000 according to the 1930 census, was virtually annihilated by the Nazi Germans during the Holocaust.[132] There were approximately 4,000 Jews in the Czech Republic in 2005.[133] The former Czech prime minister, Jan Fischer, is of Jewish ethnicity and faith.[134] The total fertility rate (TFR) in 2015 was estimated at 1.44 children born/woman, which is below the replacement rate of 2.1, and one of the lowest in the world.[135] In 2016, 48.6% of births were to unmarried women.[136] The life expectancy in 2013 was estimated at 77.56 years (74.29 years male, 81.01 years female).[137] Immigration increased the population by almost 1% in 2007. About 77,000 people immigrate to the Czech Republic annually.[138] Vietnamese immigrants began settling in the Czech Republic during the Communist period, when they were invited as guest workers by the Czechoslovak government.[139] In 2009, there were about 70,000 Vietnamese in the Czech Republic.[140] Most decide to stay in the country permanently.[141] At the turn of the 20th century, Chicago was the city with the third largest Czech population,[142] after Prague and Vienna.[143] According to the 2010 US census, there are 1,533,826 Americans of full or partial Czech descent.[144] Urbanisation Prague Prague Brno Brno Ostrava Ostrava Rank City Region Population [145] Metropolitan area viewtalkedit Plzeň Plzeň Liberec Liberec Olomouc Olomouc 1 Prague Prague, the Capital City 1,313,508 2,300,000 2 Brno South Moravian 377,440 729,510 3 Ostrava Moravian-Silesian 294,200 1,164,328 4 Plzeň Plzeň 169,033 380,000 5 Liberec Liberec 102,562 270,000 6 Olomouc Olomouc 100,378 480,000[146] 7 Ústí nad Labem Ústí nad Labem 93,409 243,878 8 České Budějovice South Bohemian 93,285 190,000[147] 9 Hradec Králové Hradec Králové 92,808 - 10 Pardubice Pardubice 89,693 - 11 Zlín Zlín 75,112 100,000 12 Havířov Moravian-Silesian 75,049 - 13 Kladno Central Bohemian 68,552 2,300,000 14 Most Ústí nad Labem 67,089 95,316 15 Opava Moravian-Silesian 57,772 - 16 Frýdek-Místek Moravian-Silesian 56,945 - 17 Karviná Moravian-Silesian 55,985 - 18 Jihlava Vysočina 50,521 - 19 Teplice Ústí nad Labem 50,079 - 20 Děčín Ústí nad Labem 49,833 - Religion Main articles: Religion in the Czech Republic and Religion in the European Union Religion in the Czech Republic (2011)[6] Undeclared   44.7% Irreligion   34.5% Catholicism   10.5% Believers, not members of other religions   6.8% Other Christian churches   1.1% Protestantism   1% Believers, members of other religions   0.7% Other religions / Unknown   0.7% Catholicism is the major religion at 10% of the population; Saint Wenceslas Cathedral in Olomouc pictured. The Czech Republic has one of the least religious populations in the world with 75%[148] to 79%[149] of people not declaring any religion or faith in polls and the percentage of convinced atheists being third highest only behind China and Japan.[21] The Czech people have been historically characterised as "tolerant and even indifferent towards religion".[150] Christianization in the 9th and 10th centuries introduced Catholicism. After the Bohemian Reformation, most Czechs became followers of Jan Hus, Petr Chelčický and other regional Protestant Reformers. Taborites and Utraquists were major Hussite groups. During the Hussite Wars, Utraquists sided with the Catholic Church. Following the joint Utraquist—Catholic victory, Utraquism was accepted as a distinct form of Christianity to be practiced in Bohemia by the Catholic Church while all remaining Hussite groups were prohibited. After the Reformation, some Bohemians went with the teachings of Martin Luther, especially Sudeten Germans. In the wake of the Reformation, Utraquist Hussites took a renewed increasingly anti-Catholic stance, while some of the defeated Hussite factions (notably Taborites) were revived. After the Habsburgs regained control of Bohemia, the whole population was forcibly converted to Catholicism—even the Utraquist Hussites. Going forward, Czechs have become more wary and pessimistic of religion as such. A long history of resistance to the Catholic Church followed. It suffered a schism with the neo-Hussite Czechoslovak Hussite Church in 1920, lost the bulk of its adherents during the Communist era and continues to lose in the modern, ongoing secularization. Protestantism never recovered after the Counter-Reformation was introduced by the Austrian Habsburgs in 1620. According to the 2011 census, 34% of the population stated they had no religion, 10.3% was Catholic, 0.8% was Protestant (0.5% Czech Brethren and 0.4% Hussite[151]), and 9% followed other forms of religion both denominational or not (of which 863 people answered they are Pagan). 45% of the population did not answer the question about religion.[6] From 1991 to 2001 and further to 2011 the adherence to Catholicism decreased from 39% to 27% and then to 10%; Protestantism similarly declined from 3.7% to 2% and then to 0.8%.[152] Education Main article: Education in the Czech Republic Orbis Pictus, a revolutionary children's textbook with illustrations[153] published in 1658 by educator John Amos Comenius. Education in the Czech Republic is compulsory for 9 years and citizens have access to a tuition-free university education, while the average number of years of education is 13.1.[154] Additionally, the Czech Republic has a relatively equal educational system in comparison with other countries in Europe.[154] Founded in 1348, Charles University was the first university in Central Europe. Other major universities in the country are Masaryk University, Czech Technical University, Palacký University, Academy of Performing Arts and University of Economics. The Programme for International Student Assessment, coordinated by the OECD, currently ranks the Czech education system as the 15th most successful in the world, higher than the OECD average.[155] The UN Education Index ranks the Czech Republic 10th as of 2013 (positioned behind Denmark and ahead of South Korea).[156] Health Main article: Healthcare in the Czech Republic Healthcare in the Czech Republic is similar in quality to other developed nations. The Czech universal health care system is based on a compulsory insurance model, with fee-for-service care funded by mandatory employment-related insurance plans.[157] According to the 2016 Euro health consumer index, a comparison of healthcare in Europe, the Czech healthcare is 13th, ranked behind Sweden and two positions ahead of the United Kingdom.[158] Culture Main article: Culture of the Czech Republic Art Painting of a woman Painting of a woman Painting of a woman Painting of a woman Spring, Summer, Autumn and Winter (1896) by Art Nouveau artist Alphonse Mucha Bohemian glass pitcher, circa 1880 Venus of Dolní Věstonice is the treasure of prehistoric art. Theodoric of Prague was the most famous Czech painter in the Gothic era. For example, he decorated the castle Karlstejn. In the Baroque era, the famous painters were Wenceslaus Hollar, Jan Kupecký, Karel Škréta, Anton Raphael Mengs or Petr Brandl, sculptors Matthias Braun and Ferdinand Brokoff. In the first half of the 19th century, Josef Mánes joined the romantic movement. In the second half of the 19th century had the main say the so-called "National Theatre generation": sculptor Josef Václav Myslbek and painters Mikoláš Aleš, Václav Brožík, Vojtěch Hynais or Julius Mařák. At the end of the century came a wave of Art Nouveau. Alfons Mucha became the main representative. He is today the most famous Czech painter.[citation needed] He is mainly known for Art Nouveau posters and his cycle of 20 large canvases named the Slav Epic, which depicts the history of Czechs and other Slavs. As of 2012, the Slav Epic can be seen in the Veletržní Palace of the National Gallery in Prague, which manages the largest collection of art in the Czech Republic. Max Švabinský was another important Art nouveau painter. The 20th century brought avant-garde revolution. In the Czech lands mainly expressionist and cubist: Josef Čapek, Emil Filla, Bohumil Kubišta, Jan Zrzavý. Surrealism emerged particularly in the work of Toyen, Josef Šíma and Karel Teige. In the world, however, he pushed mainly František Kupka, a pioneer of abstract painting. As illustrators and cartoonists in the first half of the 20th century gained fame Josef Lada, Zdeněk Burian or Emil Orlík. Art photography has become a new field (František Drtikol, Josef Sudek, later Jan Saudek or Josef Koudelka). The Czech Republic is known worldwide for its individually made, mouth blown and decorated Bohemian glass. Architecture Main articles: Czech Gothic architecture, Czech Renaissance architecture, and Czech Baroque architecture Water mill log house from a set of folk buildings in an open-air museum in central Czech Republic 18th century farmhouse near Kouřim, central Bohemia 14th century Gothic cathedral in Pilsen 15th century Gothic burgher house in Kutná Hora 16th century Renaissance château in Litomyšl 18th century Baroque church in Prague 1930s Modernist Villa Müller in Prague designed by Adolf Loos The earliest preserved stone buildings in Bohemia and Moravia date back to the time of the Christianization in the 9th and 10th century. Since the Middle Ages, the Czech lands have been using the same architectural styles as most of Western and Central Europe. The oldest still standing churches were built in the Romanesque style (St. George's Basilica, St. Procopius Basilica in Třebíč). During the 13th century it was replaced by the Gothic style (Charles Bridge, Bethlehem Chapel, Old New Synagogue, Sedlec Ossuary, Old Town Hall with Prague astronomical clock, Church of Our Lady before Týn). In the 14th century Emperor Charles IV invited to his court in Prague talented architects from France and Germany, Matthias of Arras and Peter Parler (Karlštejn, St. Vitus Cathedral, St. Barbara's Church in Kutná Hora). During the Middle Ages, many fortified castles were built by the king and aristocracy, as well as many monasteries (Strahov Monastery, Špilberk, Křivoklát Castle, Vyšší Brod Monastery). During the Hussite wars, many of them were damaged or destroyed. The Renaissance style penetrated the Bohemian Crown in the late 15th century when the older Gothic style started to be slowly mixed with Renaissance elements (architects Matěj Rejsek, Benedikt Rejt and their Powder Tower). An outstanding example of the pure Renaissance architecture in Bohemia is the Royal Summer Palace, which was situated in a newly established garden of Prague Castle. Evidence of the general reception of the Renaissance in Bohemia, involving a massive influx of Italian architects, can be found in spacious châteaux with elegant arcade courtyards and geometrically arranged gardens (Litomyšl Castle, Hluboká Castle).[159] Emphasis was placed on comfort, and buildings that were built for entertainment purposes also appeared.[160] In the 17th century, the Baroque style spread throughout the Crown of Bohemia. Very outstanding are the architectural projects of the Czech nobleman and imperial generalissimo Albrecht von Wallenstein from the 1620s (Wallenstein Palace). His architects Andrea Spezza and Giovanni Pieroni reflected the most recent Italian production and were very innovative at the same time. Czech Baroque architecture is considered to be a unique part of the European cultural heritage thanks to its extensiveness and extraordinariness (Kroměříž Castle, Holy Trinity Column in Olomouc, St. Nicholas Church at Malá Strana, Karlova Koruna Chateau). In the first third of the 18th century the Bohemian lands were one of the leading artistic centers of the Baroque style. In Bohemia there was completed the development of the Radical Baroque style created in Italy by Francesco Borromini and Guarino Guarini in a very original way.[161] Leading architects of the Bohemian Baroque were Jean-Baptiste Mathey, František Maxmilián Kaňka, Christoph Dientzenhofer, and his son Kilian Ignaz Dientzenhofer. In the 18th century Bohemia produced an architectural peculiarity – the Baroque Gothic style, a synthesis of the Gothic and Baroque styles. This was not a simple return to Gothic details, but rather an original Baroque transformation. The main representative and originator of this style was Jan Blažej Santini-Aichel, who used this style in renovating medieval monastic buildings or in Pilgrimage Church of Saint John of Nepomuk.[159] During the 19th century, the revival architectural styles were very popular in the Bohemian monarchy. Many churches were restored to their presumed medieval appearance and there were constructed many new buildings in the Neo-Romanesque, Neo-Gothic and Neo-Renaissance styles (National Theatre, Lednice–Valtice Cultural Landscape, Cathedral of St. Peter and Paul in Brno). At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries the new art style appeared in the Czech lands – Art Nouveau. The best-known representatives of Czech Art Nouveau architecture were Osvald Polívka, who designed the Municipal House in Prague, Josef Fanta, the architect of the Prague Main Railway Station, Jan Letzel, Josef Hoffmann and Jan Kotěra. Bohemia contributed an unusual style to the world's architectural heritage when Czech architects attempted to transpose the Cubism of painting and sculpture into architecture (House of the Black Madonna). During the first years of the independent Czechoslovakia (after 1918), a specifically Czech architectural style, called Rondo-Cubism, came into existence. Together with the pre-war Czech Cubist architecture it is unparalleled elsewhere in the world. The first Czechoslovak president T. G. Masaryk invited the prominent Slovene architect Jože Plečnik to Prague, where he modernized the Castle and built some other buildings (Church of the Most Sacred Heart of Our Lord). Between World Wars I and II, Functionalism, with its sober, progressive forms, took over as the main architectural style in the newly established Czechoslovak Republic. In the city of Brno, one of the most impressive functionalist works has been preserved – Villa Tugendhat, designed by the architect Ludwig Mies van der Rohe.[159] The most significant Czech architects of this era were Adolf Loos, Pavel Janák and Josef Gočár. After World War II and the Communist coup in 1948, art in Czechoslovakia became strongly Soviet influenced. Hotel International in Prague is a brilliant example of the so-called Socialist realism, the Stalinistic art style of the 1950s. The Czechoslovak avant-garde artistic movement known as the Brussels style (named after the Brussels World's Fair Expo 58) became popular in the time of political liberalization of Czechoslovakia in the 1960s. Brutalism dominated in the 70s and 80s (Kotva Department Store). Even today, the Czech Republic is not shying away from the most modern trends of international architecture. This fact is attested to by a number of projects by world-renowned architects (Frank Gehry and his Dancing House, Jean Nouvel, Ricardo Bofill, and John Pawson). There are also contemporary Czech architects whose works can be found all over the world (Vlado Milunić, Eva Jiřičná, Jan Kaplický).[159] Literature Main article: Czech literature Franz Kafka Jaroslav Seifert won the Nobel Prize in Literature In a strict sense, Czech literature is the literature written in the Czech language. A more liberal definition incorporates all literary works written in the Czech lands regardless of language. The literature from the area of today's Czech Republic was mostly written in Czech, but also in Latin and German or even Old Church Slavonic. Thus Franz Kafka, who—while bilingual in Czech and German[162][163]—wrote his works (The Trial, The Castle) in German, during the era of Austrian rule, can represent the Czech, German or Austrian literature depending on the point of view. Influential Czech authors who wrote in Latin include Cosmas of Prague († 1125), Martin of Opava († 1278), Peter of Zittau († 1339), John Hus († 1415), Bohuslav Hasištejnský z Lobkovic (1461–1510), Jan Dubravius (1486–1553), Tadeáš Hájek (1525–1600), Johannes Vodnianus Campanus (1572–1622), John Amos Comenius (1592–1670), and Bohuslav Balbín (1621–1688). In the second half of the 13th century, the royal court in Prague became one of the centers of the German Minnesang and courtly literature (Reinmar von Zweter, Heinrich von Freiberg, Ulrich von Etzenbach, Wenceslaus II of Bohemia). The most famous Czech medieval German-language work is the Ploughman of Bohemia (Der Ackermann aus Böhmen), written around 1401 by Johannes von Tepl. The heyday of Czech German-language literature can be seen in the first half of the 20th century, which is represented by the well-known names of Franz Kafka, Max Brod, Franz Werfel, Rainer Maria Rilke, Karl Kraus, Egon Erwin Kisch, and others. Bible translations played an important role in the development of Czech literature and the standard Czech language. The oldest Czech translation of the Psalms originated in the late 13th century and the first complete Czech translation of the Bible was finished around 1360. The first complete printed Czech Bible was published in 1488 (Prague Bible). The first complete Czech Bible translation from the original languages was published between 1579 and 1593 and is known as the Bible of Kralice. The Codex Gigas from the 12th century is the largest extant medieval manuscript in the world. Czech-language literature can be divided into several periods: the Middle Ages (Chronicle of Dalimil); the Hussite period (Tomáš Štítný ze Štítného, Jan Hus, Petr Chelčický); the Renaissance humanism (Henry the Younger of Poděbrady, Luke of Prague, Wenceslaus Hajek, Jan Blahoslav, Daniel Adam z Veleslavína); the Baroque period (John Amos Comenius, Adam Václav Michna z Otradovic, Bedřich Bridel, Jan František Beckovský); the Enlightenment and Czech reawakening in the first half of the 19th century (Václav Matěj Kramerius, Karel Hynek Mácha, Karel Jaromír Erben, Karel Havlíček Borovský, Božena Němcová, Ján Kollár, Josef Kajetán Tyl), modern literature in second half of the 19th century (Jan Neruda, Alois Jirásek, Viktor Dyk, Jaroslav Vrchlický, Julius Zeyer, Svatopluk Čech); the avant-garde of the interwar period (Karel Čapek, Jaroslav Hašek, Vítězslav Nezval, Jaroslav Seifert, Jiří Wolker, Vladimír Holan); the years under Communism and the Prague Spring (Josef Škvorecký, Bohumil Hrabal, Milan Kundera, Arnošt Lustig, Václav Havel, Pavel Kohout, Ivan Klíma); and the literature of the post-Communist Czech Republic (Ivan Martin Jirous, Michal Viewegh, Jáchym Topol, Patrik Ouředník, Kateřina Tučková). Noted journalists include Julius Fučík, Milena Jesenská, and Ferdinand Peroutka. Jaroslav Seifert was the only Czech writer awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature. The famous antiwar comedy novel The Good Soldier Švejk by Jaroslav Hašek is the most translated Czech book in history. It was adapted by Karel Steklý in two color films The Good Soldier Schweik in 1956 and 1957. Widely translated Czech books are also Milan Kundera's The Unbearable Lightness of Being and Karel Čapek's War with the Newts. The international literary award the Franz Kafka Prize is awarded in the Czech Republic.[164] The Czech Republic has the densest network of libraries in Europe.[165] At its center stands the National Library of the Czech Republic, based in the baroque complex Klementinum. Czech literature and culture played a major role on at least two occasions when Czechs lived under oppression and political activity was suppressed. On both of these occasions, in the early 19th century and then again in the 1960s, the Czechs used their cultural and literary effort to strive for political freedom, establishing a confident, politically aware nation.[citation needed] Music Antonín Dvořák Bedřich Smetana on the painting of František Dvořák Main articles: Music of the Czech Lands and Moravian traditional music The musical tradition of the Czech lands arose from first church hymns, whose first evidence is suggested at the break of 10th and 11th century. The first significant pieces of Czech music include two chorales, which in their time performed the function of anthems: "Hospodine pomiluj ny" (Lord, Have Mercy on Us) from around 1050, unmistakably the oldest and most faithfully preserved popular spiritual song to have survived to the present, and the hymn "Svatý Václave" (Saint Wenceslas) or "Saint Wenceslas Chorale" from around 1250.[166] Its roots can be found in the 12th century and it still belongs to the most popular religious songs to this day. In 1918, in the beginning of the Czechoslovak state, the song was discussed as one of the possible choices for the national anthem. The authorship of the anthem "Lord, Have Mercy on Us" is ascribed by some historians to Saint Adalbert of Prague (sv.Vojtěch), bishop of Prague, living between 956 and 997.[167] The wealth of musical culture in the Czech Republic lies in the long-term high-culture classical music tradition during all historical periods, especially in the Baroque, Classicism, Romantic, modern classical music and in the traditional folk music of Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia. Since the early era of artificial music, Czech musicians and composers have often been influenced the folk music of the region and dances (e.g. the polka, which originated in Bohemia). Among the most notable Czech composers are Adam Michna, Jan Dismas Zelenka, Jan Václav Antonín Stamic, Jiří Antonín Benda, Jan Křtitel Vaňhal, Josef Mysliveček, Heinrich Biber, Antonín Rejcha, František Xaver Richter, František Brixi and Jan Ladislav Dussek in baroque era, Bedřich Smetana and Antonín Dvořák in romanticism, Gustav Mahler, Josef Suk, Leoš Janáček, Bohuslav Martinů, Vítězslav Novák, Zdeněk Fibich, Alois Hába, Viktor Ullmann, Ervín Schulhoff, Pavel Haas, Josef Bohuslav Foerster in modern classical music, Miloslav Kabeláč and Petr Eben in contemporary classical music. Other examples of famous musicians, interpreters and conductors are František Benda, Rafael Kubelík, Jan Kubelík, David Popper, Alice Herz-Sommer, Rudolf Serkin, Heinrich Wilhelm Ernst, Otakar Ševčík, Václav Neumann, Václav Talich, Karel Ančerl, Jiří Bělohlávek, Wojciech Żywny, Emma Destinnová, Magdalena Kožená, Rudolf Firkušný, Czech Philharmonic Orchestra, Panocha Quartet or non-classical musicians: Julius Fučík (brass band), Karel Svoboda and Erich Wolfgang Korngold (film music), Ralph Benatzky, Rudolf Friml and Oskar Nedbal (operetta), Jan Hammer and Karel Gott (pop), Jaroslav Ježek and Miroslav Vitouš (jazz), Karel Kryl (folk). Czech music can be considered to have been beneficial in both the European and worldwide context, several times co-determined or even determined a newly arriving era in musical art,[168] above all of Classical era, as well as by original attitudes in Baroque, Romantic and modern classical music. The most famous Czech musical works are Smetana's The Bartered Bride and Má vlast, Dvořák's New World Symphony, Rusalka and Slavonic Dances or Janáček's Sinfonietta and operas, above all Jenůfa. The most famous music festival in the country is Prague Spring International Music Festival of classical music, a permanent showcase for outstanding performing artists, symphony orchestras and chamber music ensembles of the world. Theatre Portrait Portrait The National Theatre (left) and the Estates Theatre (right) Main article: Theatre of the Czech Republic The roots of Czech theatre can be found in the Middle Ages, especially in cultural life of gothic period. In the 19th century, the theatre played an important role in the national awakening movement and later, in the 20th century it became a part of the modern European theatre art. Original Czech cultural phenomenon came into being at the end of the 1950s. This project called Laterna magika (The Magic Lantern) was the brainchild of renowned film and theater director Alfred Radok, resulting in productions that combined theater, dance and film in a poetic manner, considered the first multimedia art project in international context. The most famous Czech drama is Karel Čapek's play R.U.R., which introduced the word "robot". Film Main article: Cinema of the Czech Republic The tradition of Czech cinematography started in the second half of the 1890s. Peaks of the production in the era of silent movies include the historical drama The Builder of the Temple and the social and erotic (very controversial and innovative at that time) drama Erotikon directed by Gustav Machatý.[169] The early Czech sound film era was very productive, above all in mainstream genres, especially the comedies of Martin Frič or Karel Lamač. However, dramatic movies were more internationally successful. Among the most successful being the romantic drama Ecstasy by Gustav Machatý and the romantic The River by Josef Rovenský. American poster of Karel Zeman's 1958 film A Deadly Invention After the repressive period of Nazi occupation and early communist official dramaturgy of socialist realism in movies at the turn of the 1940s and 1950s with a few exceptions such as Krakatit by Otakar Vávra or Men without wings by František Čáp (awarded by Palme d'Or of the Cannes Film Festival in 1946), a new era of the Czech film began with outstanding animated films by important filmmakers such as Karel Zeman, a pioneer with special effects (culminating in successful films such as artistically exceptional Vynález zkázy ("A Deadly Invention"), performed in anglophone countries under the name "The Fabulous World of Jules Verne" from 1958, which combined acted drama with animation, and Jiří Trnka, the founder of the modern puppet film.[170] This began a strong tradition of animated films (Zdeněk Miler's Mole etc.). Another Czech cultural phenomenon came into being at the end of the 1950s. This project called Laterna magika ("The Magic Lantern"), resulting in productions that combined theater, dance and film in a poetic manner, considered the first multimedia art project in international context (mentioned also in Theatre section above). In the 1960s, so called Czech New Wave (also Czechoslovak New Wave) received international acclaim. It is linked with names of Miloš Forman, Věra Chytilová, Jiří Menzel, Ján Kadár, Elmar Klos, Evald Schorm, Vojtěch Jasný, Ivan Passer, Jan Schmidt, Juraj Herz, Juraj Jakubisko, Jan Němec, Jaroslav Papoušek, etc. The hallmark of the films of this movement were long, often improvised dialogues, black and absurd humor and the occupation of non-actors. Directors are trying to preserve natural atmosphere without refinement and artificial arrangement of scenes. The unique personality of the 1960s and the beginning of the 1970s with original manuscript, deep psychological impact and extraordinarily high quality art is the director František Vláčil. His films Marketa Lazarová, Údolí včel ("The Valley of The Bees") or Adelheid belong to the artistic peaks of Czech cinema production. The film "Marketa Lazarová" was voted the all-time best Czech movie in a prestigious 1998 poll of Czech film critics and publicists. Another internationally well-known author is Jan Švankmajer (in the beginning of the career conjoined with above mentioned project "Laterna Magika"), a filmmaker and artist whose work spans several media. He is a self-labeled surrealist known for his animations and features, which have greatly influenced many artists worldwide.[171] The Karlovy Vary Film Festival is the largest film festival in the Czech Republic Kadár & Klos's The Shop on Main Street (1965), Menzel's Closely Watched Trains (1967) and Jan Svěrák's Kolya (1996) won the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film while six others earned a nomination: Loves of a Blonde (1966), The Fireman's Ball (1968), My Sweet Little Village (1986), The Elementary School (1991), Divided We Fall (2000) and Želary (2003). The Czech Lion is the highest Czech award for film achievement. Herbert Lom, Karel Roden and Libuše Šafránková (known from Christmas classic Three Nuts for Cinderella, especially popular in Norway) among the best known Czech actors. The Barrandov Studios in Prague are the largest film studios in country and one of the largest in Europe with many many popular film locations in the country.[172] Filmmakers have come to Prague to shoot scenery no longer found in Berlin, Paris and Vienna. The city of Karlovy Vary was used as a location for the 2006 James Bond film Casino Royale.[173] Karlovy Vary International Film Festival is one of the oldest in the world and has become Central and Eastern Europe's leading film event. It is also one of few film festivals have been given competitive status by the FIAPF. Other film festivals held in the country include Febiofest, Jihlava International Documentary Film Festival, One World Film Festival, Zlín Film Festival and Fresh Film Festival. Media Since the Czech Republic is a democratic republic, journalists and media enjoy a great degree of freedom. There are restrictions only against writing in support of Nazism, racism or violating Czech law. The country was ranked as the 23rd most free press in the World Freedom Index by Reporters Without Borders in 2017.[174]> American Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty has its headquarters in Prague. The most watched main news program is TV Nova.[175] The most trusted news webpage in the Czech Republic is ct24.cz, which owns Czech Television – the only national public television service – and its 24-hour news channel ČT24.[176] Other public services are Czech Radio and the Czech News Agency (ČTK). Privately owned television services such as TV Nova, TV Prima and TV Barrandov are also very popular, with TV Nova being the most popular channel in the Czech Republic. Newspapers are quite popular in the Czech Republic. The best-selling daily national newspapers are Blesk (average 1.15M daily readers), Mladá fronta DNES (average 752,000 daily readers), Právo (average 260,00 daily readers) and Deník (average 72,000 daily readers).[177] Video games Main article: Video gaming in the Czech Republic The Czech Republic is home to several globally successful video game developers, including Illusion Softworks (2K Czech), Bohemia Interactive, Keen Software House, Amanita Design and Madfinger Games. The Czech video game development scene has a long history, and a number of Czech games were produced for the ZX Spectrum, PMD 85 and Atari systems in the 1980s. In the early 2000s, a number of Czech games achieved international acclaim, including Hidden & Dangerous, Operation Flashpoint, Vietcong and Mafia. Today, the most globally successful Czech games include ARMA, DayZ, Space Engineers, Machinarium, Euro Truck Simulator, American Truck Simulator, Silent Hill: Downpour, 18 Wheels of Steel, Bus Driver, Shadowgun and Blackhole. The Czech Game of the Year Awards are held annually to recognize accomplishments in video game development. Cuisine Main article: Czech cuisine Czech cuisine is marked by a strong emphasis on meat dishes. Pork is quite common; beef and chicken are also popular. Goose, duck, rabbit and wild game are served. Fish is rare, with the occasional exception of fresh trout and carp, which is served at Christmas. Czech beer has a long and important history. The first brewery is known to have existed in 993 and the Czech Republic has the highest beer consumption per capita in the world. The famous "pilsner style beer" (pils) originated in the western Bohemian city of Plzeň, where the world's first-ever blond lager Pilsner Urquell is still being produced, making it the inspiration for more than two-thirds of the beer produced in the world today. Further south the town of České Budějovice, known as Budweis in German, lent its name to its beer, eventually known as Budweiser Budvar. Apart from these and other major brands, the Czech Republic also has a growing number of small breweries and mini-breweries.[citation needed] Tourism is slowly growing around the Southern Moravian region too, which has been producing wine since the Middle Ages; about 94% of vineyards in the Czech Republic are Moravian. Aside from slivovitz, Czech beer and wine, the Czechs also produce two unique liquors, Fernet Stock and Becherovka. Kofola is a non-alcoholic domestic cola soft drink which competes with Coca-Cola and Pepsi in popularity. Some popular Czech dishes include: Vepřo knedlo zelo: roast pork with bread dumplings and stewed cabbage Svíčková na smetaně: roast sirloin of beef with steamed dumplings and cream of vegetable sauce Rajská (omáčka): beef in tomato sauce, traditionally served with dumplings Koprová: beef in dill sauce, traditionally served with dumplings Pečená kachna: roast duck with bread or potato dumplings and braised red cabbage Guláš: a variety of beef and pork goulash stews, served with dumplings or bread Smažený sýr: fried cheese, typically served with potatoes or french fries and tartar sauce Bramboráky: potato pancakes, traditionally served with sour cabbage There is also a large variety of local sausages, wurst, pâtés, and smoked and cured meats. Czech desserts include a wide variety of whipped cream, chocolate, and fruit pastries and tarts, crêpes, creme desserts and cheese, poppy-seed-filled and other types of traditional cakes such as buchty, koláče and štrúdl. Czech Cuisine A mug of Pilsner Urquell, the first pilsner type of pale lager beer, brewed since 1842 Svíčková: marinated sirloin steak with root vegetable and cream gravy, dumplings, and cranberries Vepřo-knedlo-zelo: roast pork, sauerkraut and dumplings Sweet roll (koláč) with poppy seed or a fruit preserve (povidla) Easter bread baked during the celebrations of Easter Sports Main article: Sport in the Czech Republic Ice hockey is the most popular sport in the Czech Republic and the Czech national team is one of the world's most successful teams Sports play a part in the life of many Czechs, who are generally loyal supporters of their favorite teams or individuals. The two leading sports in the Czech Republic are ice hockey and football. The most watched events in the Czech Republic are Olympic Ice hockey tournaments and Ice Hockey World Championships.[178] Tennis is also a very popular sport in the Czech Republic. The many other sports with professional leagues and structures include basketball, volleyball, team handball, track and field athletics and floorball. The country has won 14 gold medals in summer (plus 49 as Czechoslovakia) and five gold medals (plus two as Czechoslovakia) in winter Olympic history. Famous Olympians are Věra Čáslavská, Emil Zátopek, Jan Železný, Barbora Špotáková, Martina Sáblíková, Martin Doktor, Štěpánka Hilgertová or Kateřina Neumannová. Sports legends are also runner Jarmila Kratochvílová or chess-player Wilhelm Steinitz. Czech hockey school has good reputation. The Czech ice hockey team won the gold medal at the 1998 Winter Olympics and has won twelve gold medals at the World Championships (including 6 as Czechoslovakia), including three straight from 1999 to 2001. Former NHL superstars Jaromír Jágr and Dominik Hašek are among the best known Czech hockey players of all time as well as current Czech NHL star David Pastrňák of the Boston Bruins . The Czechoslovakia national football team was a consistent performer on the international scene, with eight appearances in the FIFA World Cup Finals, finishing in second place in 1934 and 1962. The team also won the European Football Championship in 1976, came in third in 1980 and won the Olympic gold in 1980. After dissolution of Czechoslovakia, the Czech national football team finished in second (1996) and third (2004) place at the European Football Championship. The most famous Czech footballers were Oldřich Nejedlý, Antonín Puč, František Plánička, Josef Bican, Josef Masopust (Ballon d'or 1962), Ladislav Novák, Svatopluk Pluskal, Antonín Panenka, Ivo Viktor, Pavel Nedvěd (Ballon d'or 2003), Karel Poborský, Vladimír Šmicer, Jan Koller, Milan Baroš, Marek Jankulovski, Tomáš Rosický and Petr Čech. The Czech Republic also has great influence in tennis, with such players as Karolína Plíšková, Tomáš Berdych, Jan Kodeš, Jaroslav Drobný, Hana Mandlíková, Wimbledon Women's Singles winners Petra Kvitová and Jana Novotná, 8-time Grand Slam singles champion Ivan Lendl, and 18-time Grand Slam champion Martina Navratilova. The Czech Republic men's national volleyball team winner silver medal 1964 Summer Olympics and two gold medalist in FIVB Volleyball World Championship 1956, 1966. Czech Republic women's national basketball team win EuroBasket 2005 Women. Czechoslovakia national basketball team win EuroBasket 1946. Sport is a source of strong waves of patriotism, usually rising several days or weeks before an event. The events considered the most important by Czech fans are: the Ice Hockey World Championships, Olympic Ice hockey tournament, UEFA European Football Championship, UEFA Champions League, FIFA World Cup and qualification matches for such events.[179] In general, any international match of the Czech ice hockey or football national team draws attention, especially when played against a traditional rival. One of the most popular Czech sports is hiking, mainly in the Czech mountains. The word for "tourist" in the Czech language, turista, also means "trekker" or "hiker". For hikers, thanks to the more than 120-year-old tradition, there is a Czech Hiking Markers System of trail blazing, that has been adopted by countries worldwide. There is a network of around 40,000 km of marked short- and long-distance trails crossing the whole country and all the Czech mountains.[180][181] The most significant sports venues are Eden Arena (e.g. 2013 UEFA Super Cup, 2015 UEFA European Under-21 Championship; home venue of SK Slavia Prague), O2 Arena (2015 European Athletics Indoor Championships, 2015 IIHF World Championship; home venue of HC Sparta Prague), Generali Arena (home venue of AC Sparta Prague), Masaryk Circuit (annual Czech Republic motorcycle Grand Prix), Strahov Stadium (mass games of Sokol and Spartakiades in communist era), Tipsport Arena (1964 World Men's Handball Championship, EuroBasket 1981, 1990 World Men's Handball Championship; home venue of ex-KHL's HC Lev Praha) and Stadion Evžena Rošického (1978 European Athletics Championships). See also List of Czech Republic-related topics Outline of the Czech Republic References Notes "Czech language". Czech Republic – Official website. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Czech Republic. Retrieved 14 November 2011. Citizens belonging to minorities, which traditionally and on a long-term basis live within the territory of the Czech Republic, enjoy the right to use their language in communication with authorities and in courts of law (for the list of recognized minorities see National Minorities Policy of the Government of the Czech Republic, Belarusian and Vietnamese since 4 July 2013, see Česko má nové oficiální národnostní menšiny. Vietnamce a Bělorusy). Article 25 of the Czech Charter of Fundamental Rights and Basic Freedoms ensures the right of the national and ethnic minorities to education and communication with the authorities in their own language. Act No. 500/2004 Coll. (The Administrative Rule) in its paragraph 16 (4) (Procedural Language) ensures that a citizen of the Czech Republic who belongs to a national or an ethnic minority, which traditionally and on a long-term basis lives within the territory of the Czech Republic, has the right to address an administrative agency and proceed before it in the language of the minority. If the administrative agency has no employee with knowledge of the language, the agency is bound to obtain a translator at the agency's own expense. According to Act No. 273/2001 (Concerning the Rights of Members of Minorities) paragraph 9 (The right to use language of a national minority in dealing with authorities and in front of the courts of law) the same also applies to members of national minorities in the courts of law. The Slovak language may be considered an official language in the Czech Republic under certain circumstances, as defined by several laws – e.g. law 500/2004, 337/1992. Source: http://portal.gov.cz. 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Hawes 2008, p. 29. Sayer 1996, pp. 164–210. "Společnost Franze Kafky – Cena Franze Kafky". www.franzkafka-soc.cz. Patterson, Dave (21 July 2016). "The Czech Republic Has The Densest Library Network In The World". The chronicles of Beneš Krabice of Veitmil – the hymn "Svatý Václave" mentioned there as old and well-known in the end of the 13th century [2] Dějiny české hudby v obrazech (History of Czech music in pictures); in Czech "Czech Music". "Gustav Machatý's Erotikon (1929) & Ekstase (1933): Cinema's Earliest Explorations of Women's Sensuality". Open Culture. "History of Czech cinematography". Solomon, Charles (19 July 1991). "Brooding Cartoons From Jan Svankmajer". LA Times. Retrieved 24 August 2010. "KFTV". Wilmington Publishing and Information Ltd. Retrieved 26 October 2012. "Czech Film Commission – Karlovy Vary". Czech Film Commission. Archived from the original on 16 January 2013. Retrieved 26 October 2012. "Czech Republic : Rise of the oligarchs". Reporters Without Borders. Retrieved 9 February 2018. "Zpravodajský trojboj: Hvězdná Nova oslabuje, Prima se tahala s Událostmi ČT o druhé místo". Ihned. 27 August 2014. "Nejserióznější zpravodajství hledejte na webu ct24.cz". Czech Television. Retrieved 17 July 2015. "Čechy nejvíce zajímá bulvár. Nejčtenější v zemi je deník Blesk". Czech News Agency. Retrieved 17 July 2015. "ČT sport vysílá deset let, nejsledovanější byl hokej". MediaGuru.cz (in Czech). "Prague's Most Popular Sports". Prague.fm. Retrieved 14 May 2014. "Hiking in the Czech Republic". Expats. "Turistické značení KČT". KČT. Sources Angi, János (1997). "A nyugati szláv államok [=Western Slavic states]". In Pósán, László; Papp, Imre; Bárány, Attila; Orosz, István; Angi, János. Európa a korai középkorban ["Europe in the Early Middle Ages"]. Multiplex Media – Debrecen University Press. pp. 358–365. ISBN 963-04-9196-6. Further reading Hochman, Jiří (1998). Historical dictionary of the Czech State. Scarecrow Press. 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